'(^ 


vi/ty^l 


John  Swett 


This 
year,  o 
in  as  g< 
cover  i1 


.as^  ••  x. 


V  ^-^^jt-f, 


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NEW 

LANGUAGE  LESSO.NS;, 

AN  ELEMENTARY 

GRAMMAR   AND  COMPOSITION. 


By  WILLIAM  SWINTON, 

AUTHOR    OF    **  harper's    LANGUAGE    SERIES,"    **  BIBLE    AVORD-BOOK^"   ETC. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER   &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN      SQUARE. 

187S. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1877,  by 

Harper  &  Brothers, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


The  present  text-book  is  a  new  -  modelling  and  rewriting  of 
Swinton's  Language  Lessons.  It  has  grown  out  of  a  double  motive 
—first,  the  desire  of  better  fitting  it  to  fill  its  place  as  the  inter- 
mediate book  of  Harper's  "New  Language  Series;"  and,  next,  the 
conviction  that  an  elementary  manual  might  be  made,  which,  com- 
bining the  essentials  of  English  Grammar  and  Composition,  should 
find  especial  welcome  in  ungraded  schools. 

The  remarkable  favor  with  which  the  Language  Lessons  was 
received  has  suggested  the  propriety  of  retaining,  in  the  new  book, 
at  least  the  spirit  of  the  old.  In  that  work  the  author's  theory 
was  set  forth  in  the  following  words : 

"  This  book  is  an  attempt  to  bring  the  subject  of  language  home 
to  children  at  the  age  when  knowledge  is  acquired  in  an  objective 
way,  by  practice  and  habit,  rather  than  by  the  study  of  rules  and 
definitions.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  the  traditional  presentation 
of  grammar  in  a  bristling  array  of  classifications,  nomenclatures,  and 
paradigms  lias  been  wholly  discarded.  The  pupil  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  living  language  itself:  he  is  made  to  deal  with 
speech,  to  turn  it  over  in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  handle  sentences ;  so 
that  he  is  not  kept  back  from  the  exercise  —  so  profitable  and  in- 
teresting— of  using  language  till  he  has  mastered  the  anatomy  of 
the  grammarian.  Whatever  of  technical  grammar  is  here  given  is 
evolved  from  work  previously  done  by  the  scholar." 


IV  .      PREFACE. 

Ill  the  actual  test  of  the  school-room  daring  the  past  four  years, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  vitalizing  elements  of  the  Language  Le,^- 
sons  are,  first,  the  analytic  or  inductive  method  of  unfolding  the 
theory  of  language ;  and,  secondly,  the  affluence  of  constructive 
work.  Accordingly,  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  book  these 
approved  features  have  been  retained ;  but  it  has  been  the  author's 
aim  to  remould  the  book  on  a  more  comprehensive  plan,  Avith  a 
more  systematic  arrangement  and  a  more  orderly  development  of 
the  subject.  AVherever  the  book  was  thought  to  be  weak  —  as, 
for  instance,  according  to  many,  on  the  side  of  too  great  a  neglect 
of  grammatical  forms — it  has  been  "  toned  up ;"  and,  throughout, 
the  effort  has  been  made  to  produce  a  thorough,  working  text-hoolc. 

To  the  thousands  of  teachers  who  gave  the  old  Language  Lessons 
a  reception  exceptional  in  the  history  of  text-books,  the  author  de- 
sires to  commend  the  ]\^ew  Language  Lessons  as  being,  in  his  belief, 
more  worthy  of  their  acceptance,  and,  in  his  hope,  a  nearer  ap- 
proach to  their  ideal. 

WiLLIAit   S  WIN  TON. 
iJec.  1877. 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION  PAGF. 

I.  CLASSES  OF  WORDS 1 

II.  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  ELEMENTS 21 

III,  SUBDIVISION  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH GO 

IV.  MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH 85 

V.  SYNTAX 116 

VL  ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 144 

APPENDIX 181 


INDEX. 


A,  article,/;. 

Abstract  noun,  dorinitlon  of,  (yi. 

Active  voice,  lOo. 

Adjective,  definition  of,  6;  nsc  of,  as 
modifier,  29;  qualifying,  71;  limit- 
ing, 73;  proper,  71;  pronominal,  73 ; 
irregular,  comparison  of,  97;  com- 
parison of,  96 ;  syntax  of,  123 ;  pred- 
icate, syntax  of,  12.5. 

Adjunct,  definition  of,  28, 144. 

Adverb,  definition  of,  9 ;  use  of,  ns  mod- 
ifier, 42 ;  simple,  78 ;  conjunctive,  78 ; 
comparison  of,  97;  syntax  of,  131 ; 
misuse  of,  12.5. 

An,  article,  0. 


Analysis,  definition  of,  144;  of  the  sim- 
ple sentence,  148-150;  of  complex 
sentences,  154-157;  of  the  compound 
sentence,  16^^-164. 

Antecedent,  definition  of,  68. 

Apposition,  explanation  of,  86;  syntax 
of,  127. 

Article,  definite,  72;  indefinite,  72;  use 
of,  72,  73;  syntax  of,  124. 

Auxiliary  verb,  103. 

Bills,  forms  of,  170. 

Capitals,  rules  for  use  of,  21, 61,  71. 
Case,  definitipn  of,  89 ;  nominative,  89 ; 


possessive,  89;  objective,  89;  pos- 
sessive, syntax  of,  126. 

Clause,  definition  of,  147. 

Common  noun,  definition  of,  61. 

Comparative  degree,  definition  of,  96 ; 
rule  for  use  of,  124. 

Comparison,  definition  of,  96;  rules 
for  the  adjective  and  adverb,  96,  97; 
of  irregular  adjectives,  97. 

Complement,  syntax  of,  130. 

Complex  sentence,  147 ;  analysis,  154- 
157;  synthesis  of  the,  158-162. 

Composition,  definition  of,  1. 

Compound  sentence,  147;  analysis  of 
the,  162-164 ;  synthesis  of  the,  164- 
167. 

Conjugation,  definition  of,  103;  regu- 
lar, 103 ;  irregular,  103. 

Conjunction,  definition  of,  14;  subor- 
dinate, definition  of,  80 ;  co-ordinate, 
80  ;  syntax  of,  137. 

Construction,  rule  of,  117, 118. 

Contraction  of  sentence,  169, 170. 

Co-ordinate  conjunction,  definition  of, 
80. 

Declension,  definition  of,  89. 
Degrees  of  comparison,  96. 

Expansion  of  sentences,  167, 168. 

Forms  of  the  verb,  184 ;  progressive, 
184;  emphatic,  184, 185. 

Gender,  explanation  of,  90. 
Gerund,  explanation  of,  102. 
Grammar,  definition  of,  1. 

Imperative  mood,  101. 

Indicative  mood,  101. 

Infinitive  mood,    definition    of,  101; 

syntax  of,  129, 139. 
Interjection,  definition  of,  16 ;  syntax 

of,  138. 
Interrogative  pronoun,  definition  of, 

68 ;  declension  of,  95. 
Intransitive  verb,  definition  of,  76. 
Irregular  verb,  definition  of,  103;  list 

of,  187-192. 

Language,  definition  of,  1. 
Language  lessons,  definition  of,  1. 
Letter  -  writing,  directions   for,   171- 

175. 
Limiting  adjective,  72. 
Love,  to,  conjugation  of,  104-107. 


Modification,  definition  of,  86. 
Modifier,  definition  of,  28, 144. 
Mood,   definition  of,  101;   indicative, 

101;  potential,  101 ;  subjunctive,  101 ; 

imperative,  101. 

No,  78. 

Nominative  case,  89. 

Nominative  independent,  syntax  of, 
38. 

Note,  promissory,  178,  179. 

Nouns,  definition  of,  2;  in  apposition, 
36 ;  common,  definition  of,  61 ;  prop- 
er, definition  of,  61 ;  abstract,  defini- 
tion of,  62 ;  modification  of,  87 ;  gen- 
der of,  90 ;  declension  of,  90 ;  person 
of,  90,  91. 

Number,  definition  of,  87 ;  definition 
of,  in  verb,  99;  irregularities  of,  iu 
nouns,  182. 

Object,  definition  of,  50;  of  a  verb,  rule 
for,  128;  indirect,  129. 

Objective  case,  definition  of,  89;  gov- 
ernment of  by  a  preposition,  136; 
syntax  of,  128. 

Parsing,  definition  of,  116;  model  for, 
116,  117. 

Participle,  definition  of,  102;  mode  of 
forming  present,  102 ;  mode  of  past, 
102;  syntax  of,  123, 129. 

Parts,  i)rincipal,  of  a  verb,  103. 

Parts  of  speech  classified,  2-20 ;  sub- 
division of  the,  60-84;  modification 
of  the,  85-115. 

Passive  voice,  definition  of,  103;  mode 
of  forming,  103. 

Person,  definition  of,  66,  note;  explana- 
tion of,  90,  91 ;  definition  of,  in  verbs, 
99. 

Personal  pronoun,  definition  of,  iJQ'^ 
declension  of,  94. 

Phrase,  definition  of,  40,  146;  adjec- 
tive, definition  of,  40 ;  adverbial, 
definition  of,  44 ;  arrangement  ol, 
48. 

Plural  of  nouns,  rules  for,  87, 88;  double 
forms  of,  181 ;  in  foreign  nouns,  182; 
in  compound  nouns,  183. 

Possessive  case,  use  of  as  modifier,  33; 
definition  of,  89;  rule  for  forming 
the,  89;  syntax  of,  126. 

Potential  mood,  101. 

Predicate,  simple,  28,  144;  complete, 
28, 145 ;  modification  of,  42-48 :  with 


VI I 


object,  40,  hO;  adjective,  definition 
of,  53 ;  nominative,  definition  of,  53 ; 
adjective,  syntax  of,  125. 

Preposition,  definition  of,  12;  list  of, 
13;  syntax  of,  136. 

Principal  parts  of  a  verb,  103. 

Pronoun,  definition  of,  11 ;  personal, 
definition  of,  66 ;  relative,  definition 
of,  68;  interrogative,  definition  of, 
68 ;  modifications  of,  94,  95 ;  person- 
al, declension  of,  94;  relative  and 
interrogative,  declension  of,  95 ;  syn- 
tax of,  133. 

Proper  noun,  definition  of,  61. 

Proposition,  definition  of,  145. 

Punctuation,  rules  for,  22,  47,  50,  151, 
152, 158, 159, 164, 165. 

Qualifying  adjective,  71. 

Receipts,  forms  of,  177, 178. 

Regular  verb,  definition  of,  103 ;  con- 
jugation of,  104-107. 

Relative  pronoun,  definition  of,  68; 
declension  of,  95. 

Root  of  a  verb,  102. 

Rules  for  plural,  87,  83. 

Sentence,  definition  of,  21, 144;  kinds 
of,  22;  its  elements,  21-59 ;  simple, 
147;  complex,  147;  compound,  147. 

Simple  sentence,  147 ;  analy^sis  of  the, 
148-150;  synthesis  of,  151-154. 

Subject,  definition  of,  144;  simple,  28, 
144 ;  complete,  28, 144 ;  modifiers  of, 
29-41 ;  syntax  of,  118. 


Subjunctive  mood,  10 ;  syntax  of,  140. 

Subordinate  conjunction,  definition  of, 
80. 

Subscription,  models  of,  171-175. 

Superlative  degree,  definition  of,  96; 
rule  for  use  of,  124. 

Superscriptions,  models  of,  171-175. 

Syntax,  definition  of,  116 ;  false,  exer- 
cises in,  141,  142. 

Synthesis,  definition  of,  144;  of  the 
simple  sentence,  151-154;  of  the 
complex  sentence,  158-162;  of  the 
compound  sentence,  164-169. 

Tense,  definition  of,  100. 
The,  article,  6. 

To  love,  conjugation  of,  104-107. 
Transitive  verb,  definition  of,  76. 

Verb,  definition  of,  4;  transitive,  de- 
finition of,  76;  intransitive,  defini- 
tion of,  76 ;  neuter,  76 ;  interchange- 
ability  of  transitive  and  intransitive, 
76;  modification  of  the,  99-110;  con- 
lugation  of,  103 ;  principal  parts  of, 
103;  auxiliary,  103 ;  syntax  of,  120; 
irregular,  conjugation  of,  183 ;  to  be^ 
conjugation  of,  185;  list  of  irregular, 
187-192. 

Verbals,  definition  of,  101. 

Voice,  definition  of,  102;  active,  103; 
passive,  103. 

Words,  classes  of,  2-20. 

Yes,  78. 


NEW  LANGUAGE  LESSONS. 


INTRODUCTORY    LESSON. 

1.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of 
spoken  or  written  words. 

2.  Language  lessons  furnish  rules  for  speaking  and  writ- 
ing correctly,  and  practice  in  composition.  Language  study 
is  divided  into  two  parts :  I.  Grammar.     II.  Composition. 

3.  Grammar  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the  principles 
of  language. 

4.  Composition  is  the  art  of  writing  correctly. 


This  book  is  divided  into  six  parts,  or  sections : 

I.  Classes  of  Words. 
II.  The  Sentence  and  its  Elements. 

III.  Subdivision  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

IV.  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 
Y.  Syntax. 

VI.  Analysis  and  Synthesis. 
A 


SECTION    I. 
CLASSES   OF   WORDS. 


I— NOUNS,  OR  NAME -WORDS, 

»    1.  Columbus  discovered  America. 

2.  Buffaloes  roam  over  the  prairies. 

3.  Are  you  fond  of  slating  ? 

4.  We  love  the  fragrance  ofjloicers. 

Analysis. — Tbc  word  "Columbus''  is  the  name  of  a  person ;  the 

word  "America"  is  the  name  of  a  place;  the  word  "buffaloes"  is 

.  the  name  of  certain  animals ;  the  words  "  prairies  "  and  "  flowers  " 

are  names   of  things ;   the  word  "  skating "   is  the  name  of  an 

action ;  the  word  "  fragrance  "  is  the  name  of  a  quality. 

Explanatiou.  —  Words  that  are  used  as  names  of  persons, 
places,  things,  actions,  or  qualities  are  name -words.  In  grammar 
they  are  called  nouns. 

Definition. — A  noun,  or  name-word,  is  tlie  name  of  anything. 

NOTE. — In  selecting  the  nouns  in  a  sentence  pupils  should  remem- 
ber that,  when  it  is  stated  that  a  noun  is  the  "  name  of  anything,"  we 
do  not  mean  by  "  thing  "  merely  what  we  know  by  our  senses,  but  any 
object  (person,  place,  thing),  action,  or  quality.  *'A  noun  is  the  name 
of  anything,  existing  or  conceived  by  the  mind." — (Swinton's  English 
Gramm/ir). 


NOUNS,  OR   NAME-WORDS.  3 

EXERCISE    1. 
a. 

1.  Mention  (or  write)  the  names  of  all  the  things  you  see  in  the 

school-room. 

2.  Mention  (or  write)  the  names  of  five  persons  of  whom  you 

have  read. 

3.  Mention  (or  write)  the  names  of  five  places  of  which  you 

have  read. 

4.  Mention  (or  write)  the  names  of  five  actions,  as  singing, 

-5.  Mention  (or  write)  the  names  of  five  feelings  of  the  body  (as 
hunger) y  or  of  the  mind  (as  j^^^I/)- 

b. 

Copy  the  following  sentences  on  slates  or  paper,  drawing  a  line 
under  each  noun. 

1.  T^au^vows  in  China.     2.  The  oak  bears  acorns.     3.  "Webster 
was  a  great  orator.      4.  Paris  is  the  capital   of  France.  * 
5.  The  greatest  of  these  is  charity.    6.  Sometimes  we  see  a 
ship.     7.  Sometimes  we  ship  a  sea. '  8.  Singing  in  concert  is 
an  improving  exercise.     9.  The  light  comes  in  at  the  win-  / 
dow.      10.  The  lightning  flashes  and  the  thunder  roars.  / 
11.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.      13.  Seeing  is  believing.  ^ 
13.  Shakspeare  was  born  at  Stratford,  in  England.     14.  I  fear  / 
your  joy  is  short-lived.     15.  The  scent  of  the  roses  hangs 
round  it  still. 

16.  Go  where  glory  waits  thee ;  / 

But  when  fame  elates  thee, 
O  then  remember  me. 

Mention  each  noun  in  the  preceding  exercise,  and  apply  the  defi- 
nition of  a  noun : 

Model  :  *'Tca  rjrows  iu  China." 

*'Tca''  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  something;  *'  China"  Is  a  noun, 
because  it  is  the  name  of  something. 


4:  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.  I. 

IL—TERBS,  OR  ACTION-WORDS. 

1.  The  sun  sliines. 

2.  Are  you  icriting  ? 
o.  Bring  me  a  book. 

Analysis. — The  word  *' sliines"  tells  or  states  sometliing  about 
the  sun ;  it  is  used  in  making  a  statement.  The  words  "  are  writ- 
ing" are  used  in  asking  a  question.  The  word  "bring"  is  used  in 
expressing  a  command. 

Explanation. — A  word  that  is  used  in  stating  Avhat  any  person 
or  thing  does  or  is,  or  in  asking  what  a  person  does  or  is,  or  in  tell- 
ing another  person  to  do  or  he  something,  is  called  a  verb. 

Definition. — A  yerb  is  a  word  tliat  expresses  action  or  being. 


NOTES. 

I.  "  A  verb  is  a  word  that  predicates  action  or  being "  (Swinton's 
English  Orammar).  To  '^  predicate  "  signifies  to  express,  assert,  or  de- 
clare. This  is  the  principal  use  of  verbs,  though  they  are  also  em- 
ployed in  asking  questions  and  expressing  commands. 

II.  A  verb  may  consist  of  more  than  one  word :  as,  is  learning,  will 
he  told,  has  hecn  requested.  Hence,  in  selecting  verbs,  care  must  be  taken 
to  include  all  the  words  needed  to  express  the  action  or  state  ofheing 
intended  to  be  expressed  in  the  given  sentence. 


EXERCISE    2. 
a. 

Add  verbs  telling  what  the  following  things  do. 

Model  :   *'  The  kitten "    The  kitten  romps  in  the  garden. 

1.  The  kitten 5.  The  clock 

2.  The  boy G.Kings 

3.  The  girl 7.  The  sun 

4.' the  birds 8.  The  wind  ......... 


VERBS,  OR   ACTION-WORDS.  5 

b. 

Join  verbs  telling  about  the  following  things  being — (something). 
Model  :  "  The  apple "    The  apple  is  sour. 

1.  The  apple sour.  5.  Soldiers 

2.  The  grapes ripe.  6.  Honesty 

?).  James here  yesterday.  7.  London 

4.  Iron malleable.  8.  The  lion 

c. 
Fill  up  the  blanks  with  suitable  verbs. 

1.  Trees in  forests.     2.  David a  lion  and  a  bear.     3.  The 

glazier   the   window.      4.  The   artist   a  picture. 

5.  The  grocer tea.     6.  The  servant down  stairs. 


Copy  the  following  sentences,  drawing  one  line  under  each  noun, 
and  two  lines  under  each  verb. 

1.  The  cuckoo  builds  no  nest  for  herself. 

2.  The  elephant  surpasses  all  other  land  animals  in  size. 

3.  Vast  prairies  extend  beyond  the  Mississippi. 

4.  Before  our  house  a  prattling  river  runs. 

5.  A  herd  of  cattle  grazed  in  a  meadow. 

0.  The  timid  bird  saw  the  snake  in  the  grass. 

7.  My  fiither's  fields  have  produced  corn. 

8.  Those  pears  may  ripen  on  the  wall. 

9.  Diogenes  lived  in  a  tub. 

10.  The  ship  was  wrecked  on  the  coast. 

11.  Some  might  have  been  saved. 

12.  *'  Will  you  walk  into  my  parlor?" 
Said  the  spider  to  the  fly. 

e. 

Mention  each  verb  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  state  how 
you  know  that  it  is  a  verb. 

Model  :  *'  Builds  "  is  a  verb,  because  it  expresses  aetion. 


CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.  X. 


Ill— ADJECTIYES, 

1.  Bring  me  that  book. 

2.  Here  is  a  drove  of  ten  cattle. 
8.  The  ripe  fruit  is  plucked. 

Analysis, — The  word  *'  that "  is  added  to  the  noun  "  book  "  to 
tell  which  book  is  meant ;  the  word  "  ten "  is  added  to  the  noun 
"cattle"  to  tell  hoiv  many  are  meant;  the  word  "ripe"  is  kdded 
to  the  noun  "  fruit "  to  tell  what  kind  or  quality  of  fruit  is  meant. 

Explanation. — Words  such  as  "that"  and  "ten"  are  said  to 
limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun  with  which  they  are  joined.  A  word 
such  as  "  ripe  "  is  said  to  express  some  quality  of  the  thing  named 
by  a  noun,  or  to  qualify  the  meaning  of  a  noun. 

A  word  which  limits  or  qualifies  the  meaning  of  a  noun  is  called 
an  adjective. 

Definition. — An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit 
or  qualify  its  meaning. 


KOTES. 

I.  Sometimes  adjectives  are  used  with  the  class  of  words  called 
pronouns.     (See  definition,  page  11.) 

II.  The  words  a,  or  an,  and  the  are  adjectives,  because  they  limit  (or 
define)  tlie  meaning  of  nouns ;  but  they  are  often  called  articles. 


EXERCISE    3. 
a. 

Use  with  each  noun  an  adjective  to  limit  or  qualify  its  meaning. 
Model  :   "  Fine  grapes  grow  in  simmj  France." 

1 grapes  grow  in  France.     2.  The  tree  has  

leaves.    3.  The cat  catches mice.    4.  The wind 


tree. 


ADJECTIVES.  7 

blew   down  the   trees.      5.  The   picture   is   

6.  The clouds  float  in  the sky. 

7 drops  of  water, 

grains  of  sand, 

Make  the ocean, 

And  the land. 

Join  with  each  of  the  following  nouns  as  many  appropriate  ad- 
jectives  as  you  can  think  of,  and  prefix  a  or  an,  as  in  this  model, 
an  old 
a  green 
a  tall 
an  elegant 
a  magnificent 
a  fruit-bearing  . 

I.  tree.     2.  horse.     3.  house.     4.  man.     5.  water.     6.  bird. 

c. 

In  the  following  sentences,  select  the  adjectives,  and  tell  how  you 
know  each  is  an  adjective. 

Model:  "Dashing"  is  an  adjective  because  it  is  joined  to  a  noun  — 
"waves"— to  qualify  its  meaning;  "rock-bound"  is  an  adjective,  because  it 
is  joined  to  a  noun— "  coast  "—to  qualify  its  meaning;  "the"  is  an  article, 
limiting  "waves;"  "a"  is  an  article,  limiting  "coast." 

1.  The  dashing  waves  beat  on  a  rock-bound  coast. 

2.  A  large  garden  is  not  always  a  profitable  garden. 

3.  A  handsome  flower  is  not  always  a  sweet-smelling  flower. 
-4.  Hail,  blithesome  stranger  of  the  grove! 

5.  Fresh  water  is  a  pleasant  drink. 

C.  A  common  lamp  smoked  in  the  neck  of  a  stone  bottle. 

7.  All  horned  animals  are  ruminant. 

8.  Dear,  patient,  gentle  Nell  was  dead. 

9.  Be  not  like  dumb,  driven  cattle. 
10.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold ; 

The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 

II.  This  silly  little  grasshopper 
Despised  his  wise  old  mother. 


CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 


[SKC.  I. 


d. 

Arrange  the  adjectives,  nouns,  and  verbs  in  the  sentences  below 
in  separate  columns.     (The  articles  may  be  omitted.) 

Model  :  "  Beautiful  ferns  grow  in  shady  places." 


ADJECTIVK. 

»ODN. 

VEllB. 

beautiful 
shady 

ferns 
places 

grow 

1.  The  tall  girl  ate  the  sweet  apple.  2.  The  Grecian  army  gained 
a  splendid  victory.  3.  Little  drops  of  water  make  the  mighty 
ocean.  4.  The  poor  boy  has  a  blind  father.  5.  Switzerland 
is  noted  for  its  lofty  mountains  and  beautiful  lakes.  6.  A 
rainy  day  gladdens  the  white  ducks. 

7.  How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 
Improve  each  shining  hour  ! 


IV,— ADVERBS. 

1.  The  big  fire  burns  'brigJdly. 

2.  That  book  is  exceedingly  dear. 

3.  Some  birds  fly  very  swiftly. 

Analysis. — The  word  "  brightly  "  adds  something  to  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  "  burns ; "  .  the  w^ord  "  exceedingly  "  adds  something  to 
the  meaning  of  the  adjective  "  dear ; "  the  w^ord  "  very  "  adds  some- 
thing to  the  meaning  of  the  w^ord  (adverb)  "  swiftly." 

Explanation, — A  word  that  in  some  mode  (manner)  changes 
the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  is  said  to  modify 
the  word  with  which  it  is  joined.  In  grammar  a  w^ord  of  this  kind 
is  called  an  adverb. 


ADVERBS.  0 

Definition. — An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  tlie  meaning 
of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  anotlier  adverb. 

NOTE. — An  adverb  generally  denotes  tlme^  place^  manner^  or  degree : 
as — 

I  saw  my  uncle  [when?]  yesterday time. 

I  met  him  [where?]  here place. 

He  spoke  to  me  [how?]  2^^(^santly manner. 

He  spoke  to  me  [degree  ?]  very  pleasantly... degree* 


EXERCISE   4. 
a. 

Supply  suitable  adverbs  to  fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  gen- 

tences : 

Model  :  "  Call  me  early  in  the  morning." 

1.  Call  me  in  the  morning.     2.  Glass  is  brittle.     3.  The 

exercise   is    written.     4.  The   robin    sings  very  

5.  The  boy  has  returned.     6.  Well-baked  bread  is 

wholesome.     7 will  you  come?     8.  Tell  him  to  walk 

9.  The  bells  rang 10.  We  shall  rest 11.  The 

moon  shines 12.  King  Alfred  governed 

b. 

Make  six  sentences  containing  adverbs  of 

ti7ne 

Make  six  sentences  containing  adverbs  of 

place 

Make  eight  sentences  containing  adverbs 

of  manner 

Make  twelve  sentences  containing:  adverbs  T  ■,     -,    ^     ^]^^ 

£   T  Y      soft,  hard,  sweet,  oit- 

•^     J       ter,  fine,  line,  etc. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  adverbs,  and  state  why  each 
is  an  adverb. 

Model:  **  Terribly"  is  an  adrerb,  because  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  "blew." 

A  2 


Using  the  verbs  conu, 
go,  call,  walk,  run, 
jum2y,  fly,  sing,  cry, 
etc. 


10 


CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 


[sec.  I. 


1.  The  wind  blew  terribly.  2.  The  boys  swim  badly.  3.  I  know 
where  he  did  it,  when  he  did  it,  and  why  he  did  it.  4.  Charles 
was  here  yesterday.  5.  The  stars  are  very  bright.  G.  We 
must  win  now  or  never.  7.  The  eagle  flies  exceedingly  high. 
8.  Alice's  exercise  is  well  written.  9.  We  shall  not  fail. 
10.  The  Tribune  is  published  daily.  11.  Few  men  are  always 
happy.     12.  This  lesson  has  not  been  perfectly  prepared. 


Arrange  the  adjectives,  nouns,  verbs,  and  adverbs  in  the  following 
sentences  in  separate  columns,  as  in  the  model.  (Include  the  ar- 
ticles among  the  adjectives). 

Model  :  ''  The  merry  little  squirrel  sat  slyly  on  the  branch  of  a  very  lofty 
tree.^' 


ADJECTIVE. 

NOUN. 

VEBn. 

ADVEEB. 

the 

squirrel 

Bat 

slyly 

raeri-y 

branch 

very 

little 

tree 

the 

a 

lofty 

1.  The  treacherous  spider  soon  caught  the  poor  tly. 

2.  The  house  was  entered  yesterday,  and  the  thief  stole  the  sil- 

ver-plate. , 

3.  The  sun  shone  brightly  on  the  calm  waters  of  the  ocean. 

4.  The  sailors  danced  joyously  when  the  gallant  ship  entered  the 

harbor. 

5.  He  sang  sweetly  the  old  songs  of  his  boyhood.  ^ 
0.  The  fire  burns  cheerily  in  the  grate  to-night. 

7.  Heavy  masses  of  mist  floated  lazily  across  the  high  mountains. 

8.  A  winter  so  cold  has  never  been  known  before. 

9.  Where  is  mv  brotlier  now  ? 


PRONOUNS.  11 


v.— PRONOUISS. 

1.  /am  glad  that  you  have  come. 

3.  Frank  likes  his  dog  and  it  likes  Mm. 

Analysis. — The  word  "  I "  shows  that  the  person  speaking  means 
himself — it  is  used /or  the  name  of  the  speaker.  The  word  ^^you" 
shows  that  he  is  speaking  to  some  one — it  is  used  for  the  name  of 
that  person.  The  word  "  it "  takes  the  place  of  the  noun  "  dog ;" 
the  word  "  him  "  takes  the  place  of  the  noun  "  Frank." 

Explanation. — Words  that  are  used  for  real  names,  or  that  are 
used  instead  of  nouns,  arc  called  pronouns  —  that  is,  for-names,  or 
for-nouns. 

Definition. — A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  name,  or  instead 
of  a  noun. 

NOTE. — The  following  words  are  among  the  principal  pronouns ; 

I  you  we  he  she  it  they 

me  us  him  her  them 


EXERCISE    5. 
a. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  adding  pronouns, 

1 .  If  you  tease  the  dog, w^U  bite 

2.  The  pond  is  deep,  and  there  are  many  fish  in 

3.  The  man  ran  after  the  rabbit,  but could  not  catch 

4.  My  aunt  saw  the  pictures,  but did  not  buy 

5.  Tell (the  speaker)  what  brings (the  person  addresvsed), 

gentle  youth,  to  Rome. 

b. 

Use  pronouns  instead  of  the  words  in  italics. 

Model:  "I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  Ccesar'''' =J  come  to  bury 
CcTsar,  not  to  praise  7dm. 


12  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.  I. 

1.  I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  Gmsar. 

2.  Thomas  ploughed  the  field,  but  Thomas  did  not  plough  the 

field  well. 

3.  Xew  York  is  a  large  city ;  New  Yorlc  is  the  metropolis  of  the 

Empire  State. 

4.  The  general  told  the  soldiers  that  the  soldiers  would  gain  the 

victory. 

5.  The  crocodile  lives  in  large  swamps ;  the  crocodile  belongs  to 

the  lizard  kind,  and  the  crocodile  is  amphibious. 

6.  Alexander  was  an   ambitious  man;  Alexander  conquered  the 

whole  w^orld,  and  then  Alexander  sighed  because  Alexander 
had  no  more  worlds  to  conquer. 

7.  The  queen  walked  in  the  queen's  garden  with  the  queen's  maids ; 

the  queen''s  maids  wore  blue  dresses,  and  these  dresses  [which] 
were  trimmed  w^ith  lace. 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  drawing  a  line  under  each  pronoun. 

1.  Charles  and  I  ran  home ;  w^e  were  tired. 

2.  John  is  a  good  boy ;  he  has  learned  his  lesson. 

3.  You  should  not  lose  your  place. 

4.  Whales  are  not  fishes,  though  they  live  in  the  sea. 

6.  The  farmer's  wife  gave  me  an  apple,  and  she  said  I  w^as  not  to 

eat  it  until  I  went  home. 
6.  She  said,  ^'  Sir,  we  are  seven." 
7. 1  had  a  little  pony. 

His  name  w^as  Dapple  Gray. 

I  lent  him  to  a  lady. 

To  ride  a  mile  away. 


YL— PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  The  ship  sailed /r6»m  Boston.  # 

2,  The  book  on  the  desk  is  mine. 

Analysis. — In  the  first  sentence  the  word  "from"  expresses  a 
relation  between  "  Boston  "  and  *'  sailed.''     In  the  second  sentence 


PREPOSITIONS.  13 

the  word  "on"  expresses  a  relation  of  place  between  "desk"  and 
"book." 

Explauation. — Words  that  express  a  relation  between  a  noun  or 
pronoun  and  some  other  word  are  called  prepositions.  They  con- 
nect the  words  between  which  there  is  a  relation  of  meaning. 

Definition. — A  preposition  is  a  connective  word  expressing  a 
relation  of  meaning  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  otiier 
word. 

NOTE. — In  our  language  there  are  about  fifty  of  these  relation' 
words.    The  following  are  the  most  used  prepositions : 

at  from  off  till  up 

by  in  on  '     to  witli 

for  of  through 


EXERCISE    6. 
a* 

Supply  suitable  prepositions  to  fill  the  blanks  in  the  following 
sentences. 

Model  :  ''  The  visitor  passed  through  the  gate." 

1.  The  visitor  passed the  gate. 

3.  Swallows  build the  eaves  of  houses. 

3.  The  mighty  Andes  rise the  clouds. 

4.  The  orator  was  received applause. 

5.  Place  my  book the  table. 

6.  Will  you  come my  house? 

7.  Children  coming  home school,  look  in the  open  door. 

8.  The  poem Paradise  Lost  was  written Milton. 

9.  Carry  that  box James my  compliments. 

10.  Did  you  buy  that  book mc? 

11.  We  work noon dewy  eve. 

13 whom  are  you  speaking? 


14  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.   I. 

b. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  prepositions,  and  tell  why 
each  is  a  prepositio-n. 

Model:  "In"  is  a  preposition,  because  it  shows  a  relation  of  meaning 
between  *'lieart"  and  "trutli;"  "on"  is  a  preposition,  because  it  sliows  a 
relation  of  meaning  between  "lips"  and  "trutli." 

1.  Truth  in  the  heart  is  better  than  truth  on  the  lips. 

2.  The  trees  of  the  garden  are  loaded  with  fruit. 

8.  I  walked  yesterday  from  our  house  to  the  church. 

4.  The  river  flows  down  the  valley. 

5.  The  boy  in  the  boat  caught  a  fish  with  a  line. 

6.  A  sailor  at  sea  looks  hopefully  for  land. 

7.  The  child  met  me  on  the  road. 

8.  We  must  return  to  the  dust  from  which  we  were  taken. 

9.  They  grew  in  beauty  side  by  side, 
They  filled  one  home  with  glee ; 
Their  graves  are  scattered  far  and  wide, 
By  mount  and  stream  and  sea. 


VII.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  James  and  John  went  home  together. 

2.  I  went  tecause  he  asked  me. 

Analysis. — The  word  "and"  connects  the  two  nouns  "James" 
and  "John;"  the  word  "because"  connects  "I  went"  and  "he 
asked  me,"  which  are  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Explanation. — A  word  used  to  connect  two  words  or  other  parts, 
or  elements^  of  a  sentence,  or  to  connect  two  statements  in  the  same 
sentence,  is  called  a  conjunction. 

Definition. — A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences 
or  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  15 


NOTES. 

I.  The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  loords,  phrases^  or  propositions  of 
which  it  is  composed.     (For  definitions,  see  pages  144, 145.) 

II.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  conjunctions : 

and  either — or  if 

but  neither— nor  than 

because  for  that 


EXERCISE    7. 


Supply  suitable  conjunctions  to  fill  the  blanks  in  the  following 

sentences. 

Model  :  "  He  is  poor,  hut  he  is  honest." 

1.  He  is  poor, he  is  honest. 

2.  Ann Ella  are  sitting  on  the  grass. 

3.  Do  it, I  wish  you  to  do  it. 

4.  Art  is  long, time  is  fleeting. 

5.  I  will  tell  him, he  ask  me. 

G.  Either  he I  must  be  in  the  wrong. 

7.  I  did  not  know your  brother  had  hurt  himself. 

8.  Texas  is  larger New  York. 

9.  All  seek  happiness, not  many  find  it. 

10.  Hannibal,  Caesar, Napoleon  were  great  generals. 

b. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  conjunctions,  and  tell  why 
each  is  a  conjunction. 

Model:  *'And"  is  a  conjunction  because  it  connects  the  nouns  "animals" 
and  "plants,"  two  elements  of  the  sentence;  "and"  is  a  conjunction  because 
it  connects  "live"  and  "grow,"  two  elements  of  the  sentence. 

1.  Animals  and  plants  live  and  grow. 

2.  The  father  wept,  for  his  son  was  dead. 

3.  Richard  sat  down,  but  his  sister  ran  ofi". 


16  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [SEC.   I. 

4.  Two  and  two  make  four ;  but  two  and  three  make  five. 

5.  Neither  soldiers  nor  sailors  could  advance. 

6.  No  harm  was  done,  though  the  storm  was  very  severe. 

7.  I  like  him  because  he  is  generous. 

8.  We  heard  that  you  had  arrived. 

9.  They  are  brave  and  modest  boys. 
10.  They  arc  slow,  but  they  are  sure. 


VIII.-~INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  Alas!  poor  Yorick :  I  knew  him,  Horatio. 

2.  Aha!  papa,  I  have  found  you  out. 

Analysis. — The  word  "alas"  is  an  exclama;tion  of  sorrow;  the 
word  "  aha"  is  an  exclamation  of  surprise  and  pleasure. 

Explanation. — A  word  of  exclamation  denoting  some  sudden 
feeling  is  called  an  interjection.  This  literally  signifies  a  word 
merely  thrown  in  among  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

Definition. — ^An  interjection  is  a  word  which  expresses  an  emo- 
tion. 


EXERCISE   8. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  interjections^  and  tell  why 
they  are  interjections : 

1.  Hush !  you  should  not  talk  now. 

2.  Fie !  it  was  not  kind  of  you  to  do  so. 

3.  Alas  !  they  had  been  friends  in  youth. 

4.  Hurrah !  we  are  to  have  a  holiday. 

5.  Ho !  breakers  on  the  weather  bow  i 

6.  Adieu,  adieu  I  my  native  shore  fades  on  my  sight. 


/  SUMMARY.  17 

All  the  words  in  the  English  language  are  arranged  in  eight 
classes,  called  parts  of  speecli.     These  are  : 

1.  Noun.  5.  Pronoun. 

2.  Verb.  G.  Preposition. 

3.  Adjective.  7.  Conjunction. 

4.  Adverb.  8.  Interjection. 

1.  A  noun,  or  name-word,  is  the  name  of  anything. 

2.  A  verb  is  a  word  that  expresses  action  or  being. 

3.  An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit  or  qualify  its 
meaning. 

4.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

5.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  name  or  instead  of  a  noun. 

6.  A  preposition  is  a  connective  word  expressing  a  relation  of 
meaning  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word. 

7.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences  or  the 
elements  of  a  sentence,     n 

8.  An  interjection  is  a  word  which  expresses  an  emotion. 


REVIEW    EXERCISES, 
a. 

Make   (orally  or  in  writing)  sentences  of  two  words  each  by 
telling  what  the  following  animals  do. 

Model:  "Bees  buzz."    — 

1.  Bees 5.  Owls 9.  Squirrels 

2.  Dogs G.  Hens 10.  Crickets 

3.  Cats 7.  Geese 11.  Bears 

4.  Horses 8.  Eagles 12.  Wolves 


18  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.  I. 

b. 

Make  (orally  or  in  writing)  sentences  by  joining  to  each  noun 
an  adjective,  and  to  each  verb  an  adverb. 

Model  :  "Good  scholars  study  diligently." 

1.  Scholars  study  5.  Fruit  ripens 

2.  Men  w^ork  6.  The  fire  burns 

3.  The  wind  blows  7.  Birds  sing 

4.  The  girls  sew  8.  The  cat  and  the  dog  played 

c. 

Make  (orally  or  in  writing)  sentences  by  joining  a  verb  with  each 
of  the  following  pronouns. 

Model:  "I  study." 

1.  I 4.  We 7.  It 

2.  He 5.  You 8.  Who ? 

3.  She 6.  They 9.  What ? 

d. 

Make  (orally  or  in  writing)  sentences  by  putting  a  noun  after 
each  of  the  following  prepositions. 

Model  :  "  Tea  comes  from  China." 

1.  Tea  comes /?W7i 4.  The  cow  jumped  over 

2.  The  sun  rises  in 5.  The  church  i^  on 

3.  The  dogs  ran  through 6.  We  went  to  Chicago  by 

e. 

Make  (orally  or  in  writing)  sentences  by  supplying  a  conjunction 
where  required. 

Model  :  "  Boys  and  girls  write." 

1.  Boys girls  write. 

2.  Dogs  bark bite. 

3.  Will  you  have  pears peaches  ? 

4.  I  will  go you  will. 

5.  I  have  neither  gold silver. 

6.  John  recites  well  in  grammar poorly  in  geography. 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES.  19 

COMPOSITION    EXERCISES, 
a. 

We  may  briefly  describe  a  place  by  answering  the  following 
questions : 

1.  What  is  it  ?    2.  Where  is  it  ?     3  What  is  it  noted  for  ? 
Model:  *' Chicago." 

1.  It  is  a  great  citj^ 

2.  It  is  in  the  State  of  Illinois. 

3.  It  is  noted  for  its  trade  in  grain. 

These  statements  may  be  thus  combined : 
Chicago,  a  great  city  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  is  noted  for  its  trade 
in  grain. 

Make  statements  of  each  of  the  following  places,  and  combine 
into  a  sentence. 

1.  Boston.  4.  New  Orleans. 

2.  San  Francisco.  5.  Baltimore. 

3.  Cincinnati.  C.  The  place  you  live  in. 

b. 

We  may  briefly  describe  a  building,  such  as  a  house,  a  church,  or 
a  railroad  depot,  by  answering  the  following  questions : 

1.  What  is  it  ?     2.  What  is  it  used  for  ?    3.  What  are  its  pnncipal 
parts  ?     4.  What  is  it  built  of? 

Model  :  "A  house." 

1.  It  is  a  building. 

2.  It  is  used  for  a  dwelling-place. 

3.  Its  principal  parts  are  the  walls,  roof,  floors,  rooms,  windows, 

doors,  and  halls. 

4.  It  is  built  of  wood,  brick,  or  stone. 

Combined. — A  house  is  a  building  which  is  used  for  a  dwelling-place. 
It  is  built  of  wood,  brick,  or  stone,  and  its  principal  parts  are  the  walls, 
roof,  floors,  rooms,  windows,  doors,  and  halls. 


20  CLASSES    OF    WORDS.  [sEC.  I. 

Make  statements  of  each  of  the  following  objects,  and  combine 
into  two  sentences. 

1.  A  church.  4.  A  jail. 

2.  A  railroad  depot.  5.  An  asylum. 

3.  A  barn.  6.  Our  post-office. 


The  following  story  is  to  be  read  aloud  to  the  class,  and  pupils 
are  then  to  write  what  they  can  remember  of  it.  (This  is  called  an 
abstract  from  memory.) 

DON'T  GIVE  TOO  MUCH  FOR   THE  WHISTLE. 

When  I  was  a  little  boy  about  seven  years  old,  my  friends,  on  a 
holiday,  filled  my  pockets  with  spending-money.  I  went  direct- 
ly towards  a  shop  where  toys  for  children  were  sold ;  and  being 
charmed  with  the  sound  of  a  whistle,  in  the  hands  of  another 
boy  that  I  met  by  the  way,  I  offered  him  all  my  money  for  it.  I 
then  came  home,  and  went  whistling  over  the  house,  much 
pleased  with  my  whistle,  but  disturbing  all  the  family.  My 
brothers,  sisters,  and  cousins,  hearing  of  the  bargain  I  had  made, 
told  me  I  had  given  four  times  as  much  for  the  whistle  as  it 
was  worth.  This  put  me  in  mind  what  good  things  I  might 
have  bought  with  the  rest  of  the  money ;  and  they  laughed  at 
me  so  much  for  my  folly  that  I  cried  with  vexation.  This  little 
event  was  afterwards  of  use  to  me,  for  often,  when  I  was  tempted 
to  buy  some  unnecessary  thing,  I  said  to  myself:  ''  Don't  give 
too  much  for  the  whistle ;"  and  so  I  saved  my  mone3\ — Benja- 
min Fraiikliju 


SECTION  11. 
THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  ELEMENTS. 


IX.--DEFINITION  OF  THE  SENTENCE. 

Fire  burns. 
Analysis. — Here  something  is  named — "  fire.''    Something  is  said 
about  fire — (it)  "  burns." 

Explanation. — Whenever  we  smj  something  about  anything,  we 
express  a  thought.  A  thought  expressed  in  words  is  called  a 
sentence. 

Definition. — A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  a 
complete  thought :  as— 

1.  Rain  is  falling. 

2.  The  stars  are  distant. 

8.  The  merry  schoolboy  whistles  loudly. 

Rule  for  Capitals.  —  The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

NOTE. — A  sentence  is  made  up  oficords;  but  words  thrown  together 
at  random  do  not  form  a  sentence :  they  must  mean  something  before 
tliey  can  be  a  sentence.  A  pupil  was  told  to  write  a  sentence  on  air. 
She  wrote  these  words :  "  The  air  that  Mve  breathe."  Now  these  words 
are  not  a  sentence,  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  make  any  complete 
statement.  They  might  easily  be  converted  into  a  sentence  by  saying, 
"The  air  that  we  breathe  is  sweet,"  or  "The  air  that  we; breathe  is  a 
fluid." 


22  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

EXERCISE    9. 

Supply  such  words  as  will  convert  into  sentences  the  following 
incomplete  collections  of  words. 

Model:  ^^lnl4Q2Co\nmh\xs  discovered  America.''^ 

1.  In  1492  Columbus ' 

2.  The  earth,  in  365i  days 

.    3.  A  band  of  robbers 

4.  The  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe 

5.  When  Washington  had  cut  down  the  cherry-tree 

6.  The  city  of  New  York  is 

7.  The  Empire  of  China 

8 was  a  great  patriot. 

9 gives  milk. 

10 is  the  largest  city  in  the  world. 

11 tell  us  the  time  of  day. 

12 is  an  improving  study. 

13 travel  over  the  desert. 

14 live  in  Africa. 


X.-KINDS  OF  SENTENCES. 

I.  A  sentence  may  take  one  or  other  of  these  forms : 

1.  Declarative. — It  may  simply  express  a  statement,  or  declare 

something :  as,  "'  The  sun  shines."     Such  a  sentence  is  called 
a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  Interrogative. — It  may  ask  a  question:  as,  "Are  you  ill?" 

Such  a  sentence  is  called  an  interrogative  sentence. 

3.  Imperative.  —  It  may  express  a  command:  as,  "Go  away." 

Such  a  sentence  is  called  an  im^Krative  sentence. 

4.  Exclamative. — It  may  express  a  wish :  as,  "  May  every  bless- 

ing attend  you  I"    Such  a  sentence  is  called  an  exclamative 
sentence. 


KINDS    OF    SENTExXCES. 


23 


11.  Rule  for  Terminal  Marks.* — A  declarative  or  an  impera- 
tive sentence  is  closed  with  a  period  (•) ;  an  interrogative  sentence, 
with  an  interrogation  point  (1);  an  exclamative  sentence,  with  an 
exclamation  point  (!)• 


EXERCISE    10. 


Copy  on  slates  or  paper  the  following  sentences.  J^"  Exchange 
exercises  for  correction  as  to  (1)  spelling,  (2)  capitals,  and  (3)  ter- 
minal marks. 

1.  The  farmer  mows  the  waving  grass. 

2.  Tell  me  what  you  want. 

3.  "What  are  you  doing  ?    Where  are  you  going  ? 

4.  How  sw^eet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank ! 

5.  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field.    Why  stand  we  here  idle  ? 

Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the 
l^rice  of  chains  or  slavery  ?    Forbid  it,  Almighty  God !    I 
know  not  what  course  others  may  take ;  but  as  for  me,  give 
me  liberty  or  give  me  death ! 
(5.  Oh !  call  my  brother  back  to  me  ! 
I  cannot  play  alone. 
The  summer  comes  with  flower  and  bee ; 
Where  is  my  brother  gone  ? 


b. 

Foim   sentences   of   the   kinds   indicated,  using   the   following 
words : 


STATEMENTS. 

Washington 

Gold 

Our  state 

Many  ships 


QUESTIONS. 

is situated? 

steam-engine? 

discovered....? 

Did know ? 


COMMANDS. 


Cease... 
Write... 
Send.... 
Honor.. 


*  A  terminal  mark  is  a  mark  of  punctuation  placed  at  the  end  or  termination. 
of  a  Bcntcncc. 


THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   11. 


C. 

Express  each  of  the  following  statements  in  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion, a  command,  and  an  exclamation. 

Model  : 

1.  Dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite.    (Statement.) 

2.  Do  dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite  ?    (Question.) 
'S.  Let  dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite.    (Command.) 

4.  How  dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite !    (Exclamation.) 

1.  Dogs  delight  to  bark  and  bite. 

2.  The  big  fire  burns  brightly. 
8.  Time  flies  rapidly. 

4.  The  storm  rages  fiercely. 

5.  The  scholars  rejoice. 

6.  The  lion  roars. 


XI.— SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

Birds  fly. 

Analysis. — In  this  sentence,  is  anything  named ^  "What?  Is  any- 
thing said  about  them  ?     What  ? 

Explanation. — Every  sentence,  however  short,  must  have  two 
parts:  1.  The  name  of  what  is  spoken  of — or  the  subject ;  2.  What 
is  stated  of  the  subject — or  the  predicate. 

In  any  collection  of  words,  unless  something  is  nained  and  some- 
thing stated  about  what  is  nam^d,  there  can  be  no  statement,  and 
hence  no  sentence. 

Definition  I. — The  subject  of  a  sentence  represents  that  cf 
which  something  is  stated. 

Definition  II. — The  predicate  of  a  sentence  tells  what  is  stated 
of  the  subject. 

Definition  III— A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one 
subject  and  one  predicate. 


SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE.  25 


NOTES. 

I.  Both  the  subject  and  the  predicate  may  consist  of  many  words. 

II.  The  question  "  Who  (or  what)  is  mentioned  f^  will  always  suggest 
the  subject  as  its  answer.  And  "  What  is  said  of  the  subject  T'  will  give 
the  predicate.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  "  The  squirrel  eyes  the  browning 
chestnuts,"  w  hat  is  mentioned  ?  "  The  squirrel."  What  is  said  of  the 
squirrel  ?     "  Eyes  the  browning  chestnuts.' ' 


EXERCISE    11. 
a. 

Make  sentences,  using  suitable  pairs  of  the  following  subjects  and 
predicates. 

Model  :  *'  A  dog  worried  a  cat." 

c  A  dog,  robin,  crow,  horse,  baby, 

Subjects J  the   boy,  the   girl,  the  jockey,  the  coachman,  tlie 

(  doctor,  the  teacher,  the  musician, 

(taught  the  class,  will  play  the  fiddle,  shall  win  the 
race,  worried  a  cat,  will  sing  a  song,  built  a  nest, 
upset  the  carriage,  cured  the  man,  trundles  a  hoop, 
shall  toss  a  ball,  wants  its  rattle,  broke  the  fence. 

b. 

Supply  suitable  subjects : 

1 revolves  around  the  sun  in  a  year. 

2,  is  the  season  of  snow  and  ice, 

3 are  drawn  over  the  snow  in  sledges. 

4 sufie red  terribly  at  Valley  Forge. 

5 is  called  the  Father  of  his  Country. 

6 sail  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

7 wrote  her  exercise. 

8 lived  on  a  desert  island. 

9 tremble  in,  the  breeze. 

10 glides  skilfully  over  the  ice. 

B 


26  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 


Supply  suitable  predicates. 

1.  London 

2.  Coal 

3.  Sounds  of  music  ...... 

4.  Vessels 

5.  The  source  of  the  Nile  .... 

6.  The  children 

7.  The  fierce  lion 

8.  The  kind-hearted  doctor  , 


Write  a  sentence  containing  each  of  the  following  words.  Un- 
derline all  the  words  in  the  subject,  and  doubly  underline  all  the 
words  in  the  predicate. 

Model  :  Smoke    "  Smoke  curls  up  from  the  chimney.''^ 

1 .  Smoke.  5.  The  steam-engine. 

2.  Desk.  6.  The  eagle. 

3.  Air.  7.  Money. 

4.  Book.  8.  Girls. 

JS^  Exchange  papers,  and  see  if  the  subjects  and  predicates  are 
correctly  underlined. 

e* 
Compose  two  or  more  sentences  upon  each  of  the  following  sub- 
jects: 

1.  Cotton.  2.  Dogs.  3.  Robinson  Crusoe. 

S^"  Let  some  of  the  sentences  be  written  on  the  blackboard,  and 
made  the  basis  of  class-criticism.  Correct  according  to  the  follow- 
ing directions : 

1.  Draw  a  line  under  each  misspelled  w^ord. 

2.  Draw  a  line  through  each  small  letter  that  should  be  a  cajiital, 

or  capital  that  should  be  a  small  letter. 

3.  Mark  a  cross  where  a  period  is  omitted.  . 


ANALYSIS    AKD    SYNTHESIS.  27 


XIL— AXALTSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS. 

I.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  the  parts  or  ele- 
ments of  which  it  is  composed. 

II.  Synthesis  is  the  process  of  constructing  sentences  from  their 
elements. 


EXERCISE    12. 
a. 

Analyze,  according  to  the  model,,  the  following  sentences. 

Model  :  "Trees  blossom"  is  a  sentence,  because  it  expresses  a  thought, 
and  it  is  a  simple  sentence  because  it  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predi- 
cate. "Trees"  is  the  subject,  because  it  names  that  of  which  something  is 
thought;  "blossom"  is  the  predicate,  because  it  tells  what  is  thought  of 
"trees." 

1.  Trees  blossom.  7.  Dogs  bark. 

2.  Kings  rule.  8.  Grass  will  grow. 

3.  Worms  crawl.  9.  jMorning  has  daw  ned. 

4.  Money  was  paid.  10.  Bread  nourishes. 

5.  Boatmen  were  rowing.  11.  Exercise  invigorates. 

6.  Lions  roar.  12.  Men  have  been  loved. 

*>• 

Construct  sentences  by  joining  a  suitable  subject  with  each  of  the 
following  predicates  —  no  sentence  to  contain  more  than  two  words. 

1 run.  5 play.  9 fell. 

2 grow.  G purrs.  10 sailed. 

3 expand.  7 bellow.  11 died. 

4 die.  8 swim.  12 live. 

c. 

Construct  sentences  by  joining  a  suitable  predicate  with  each  of 
the  following  subjects  — (each  predicate  to  consist  of  one  verb  only, 
though  the  verb  may  be  expressed  in  more  than  one  icord). 

1.  Ladies 3.  Rivers o.  Ships 

2.  Roses 4.  Greece G.  The  teaehcr  ..-...-. 


28  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   II, 


XIII. -SIMPLE  AND  COMPLETE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE, 

L  A  thought  may  be  expressed  by  means  of  two  words — one  being 
the  subject,  the  other  the  predicate :  thus — 

BUBJE0T8.  PREDICATKB. 

Birds  fly. 

Fishes  swdm. 

Diamonds  sparkle. 

Nero  fiddled. 

Rome  remains. 

II.  When  the  subject  consists  of  a  single  word  it  is  called  the 
simple  subject ;  when  a  predicate  consists  of  one  verb  (word  or 
words)  it  is  called  the  simple  predicate. 

III.  The  simple  subject  and  simple  predicate  often  have  words 
added  to  them  to  modify  their  meaning.  One  or  more  words  added 
to  another  to  modify  its  meaning  is  called  an  adjunct^  or  modifier  ; 
and  a  word  thus  added  to  is  said  to  be  modified  or  enlarged, 

IV.  The  complete  subject  or  predicate  is  the  subject  or  predicate 
with  all  its  modifiers. 

1.  Birds  fly. 

This  is  a  sentence,  with  a  simple  subject,  **  birds,"  and  a  simple  predicate, 
''fly." 

2.  Some  birds  fly  swiftly. 

Here  the  subject  is  modified  or  enlarged  by  the  word  "some,"  and  the 
predicate  by  the  word  "  swiftly." 

3.  Some  birds  of  prey  fly  very  swiftly. 

Here  the  words  "  of  prey  "  are  added  to  the  last  subject,  and  "  very  "  to  the 
last  predicate. 

4.  Some  birds  of  prey^  having  secured  their  victim,  fly  tcith  it  very 

swiftly  to  their  nests. 

Here  the  subject  and  the  predicate  are  modified  or  enlarged  by  many  ad- 
ditional words. 


SUBJECT    MODIFIED.  ^  29 

8UBJE<1TS.  PKKDIOATKS. 

1.  Birds  fly. 

3.  Some  birds  fly  swiftly. 

8.  Some  birds  of  prey  fly  very  swiftly. 

4.  Some  birds  of  prey,  having 

secured  their  victim,        fly  with  it  very  swiftly  to  their  nests. 

Exercise. — In  like  manner,  enlarge  the  following  sentences  till 
you  make  them  as  long  as  you  can.  Be  careful  to  have  only  one 
subject  and  one  predicate : 

1.  Boys  study.  2.  A  horse  ran. 


XIV.— SUBJECT  MODIFIED:  By  an  A^eetiye. 

1.  Three  tall  soldiers  passed. 

2.  The  melancholy  days  have  come. 

Analysis. — The  word  "tail''  modifies  "soldiers,"  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  ;  "  three  "  limits  "  tall  soldiers."  The  words 
"  the  "  and  "  melancholy  "  modify  the  subject  "  days." 

Explanation. — It  is  often  necessary  to  modify  (that  is,  to  limit  or 
qualify)  the  meaning  of  the  noun-subject.  For  this  purpose  we  may 
use  adjectives.  "Three,"  "tall,"  "the,"  and  "melancholy"  are 
adjectives. 

First  Modifier.  —  The  simple  subject  may  be  modified  by  an 
adjective.  

EXERCISE    13. 
a. 

Analyze  according  to  the  model. ^ 

Model:  '*The   melancholy  days   have    come"    is   a    simple    sentence. 

*  At  this  stage  of  progress  the  analysis  is  to  be  confined  to  stating  the  sim- 
ple subject  and  its  modifiers.  The  predicate  may  merely  be  named,  not  an- 
alyzed. 


30  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

"  Days"  is  the  simple  subject :  it  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  "  melancholy  " 
and  "the."    The  predicate  is  "have  come." 

1.  The  melancholy  days  liave  come.  2.  Large  bodies  move  slowly. 
3.  The  gray  horses  ran  away.  4.  Dark  shadows  stretched 
across  the  green  meadow.  5.  Huge  elephants  live  in  Africa. 
6.  The  lowing  herd  comes  home.  7.  Beautiful  meadows  lay 
below.  8.  Early  rising  is  healthful.  9.  The  rising  sun  shone 
through  the  window.     10.  The  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 

b. 

Write  six  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing nouns  as  its  subject ;  and  join  one  or  more  adjective  modi- 
fiers with  each  subject. 

1.  School-house.  o.  Grass.  5.  Feelings. 

3.  Mill.  4.  Peaches.  ,  G.  Doll. 


XV.— ADJECTIYE  MODIFIERS:  Synthesis. 

To  a  noun-subject  we  may  join — 

1.  A  single  adjective :  as,  "  Tall  trees  appear." 

2.  Two  or  more  adjectives,  of  which  one  modifies  the  noun  directly, 
while  the  others  modify  the  noun  as  already  modified  by  the  nearest 
adjective :  as,  "A  miscMewiis  little  boy  sat  on  the  back  seat." 

3.  Two  or  more  adjectives  separately  modifying  the  noun:  as, 
"  Kate's  large,  laughing,  light-blue  eyes  danced  in  her  head." 

Punctuation. — The  following  rule  of  punctuation  applies  to  ad- 
jectives : 

Three  or  more  adjectives  (or  two  if  not  joined  by  a  conj unction)  modi- 
fying a  noun  are  separated  by  commas :  as— 

1.  This  calm^  resolute  man. 

2.  This  cahn^  cool,,  and  resolute  man. 

3.  This  calm  and  resolute  man. 


/  ADJECTIVE    MODIFIERS.  31 

NOTES. 

I.  When  a  noun  has  joined  with  it  two  or  more  adjectives  whicli  do 
not  separately  modify  it,  the  adjectives  sliould  not  be  separated  by  the 
comma.     Thus,  in  the  sentence — 

"A  mischievous  little  boy  sat  on  the  back  scat"--- 
*' little"  modifies  "boy,"  "mischievous"  modifies  "little  boy,"  "a" 
modifies  "  mischievous  little  boy."     Hence,  as  these  adjectives  do  not 
separately  modify  the  noun,  they  are  not  separated  by  the  comma. 

II.  The  adjective  next  to  the  noun  is  not  followed  by  the  comma. 


EXERCISE    14. 
a. 


Unite  each  group  of  statements  into  a  single  sentence,  using  all 
the  adjectives  as  modifiers  of  the  subject. 


A  boy  ran  away  from  school  yesterday : 

He  was  a  cross  boy. 

He  was  a  quarrelsome  boy. 

He  was  a  lazy  boy. 

1.  The  Himalayas  extend  across  Asia: 
The  Himalayas  are  lofty. 

The,  Himalayas  are  majestic. 
The  Himalayas  are  snoic-capped. 

2.  A  ship  sailed  yesterday  to  the  East  Indies : 
It  w^as  a  large  ship. 

It  was  a  noUe  ship. 
It  w^as  a  gallant  ship. 

3.  Mice  ran  after  the  farmer's  wife : 
They  were  three  mice. 

They  were  Nind  mice. 


-  A  cross,  quarrelsome, 
lazy  boy  ran  away  from 
school  yesterday. 


32  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   II. 

4.  Books  are  nice  Christmas  presents : 

It  IS  pretty  books  that  are  nice  Christmas  presents. 
It  is  illustrated  books  that  are  nice  Christmas  presents. 
It  is  story-hooks,  that  are  nice  Christmas  presents. 

5.  A  king  named  Alfred  ruled  over  England  a  thousand  years  ago : 
He  was  a  learned  king. 

He  was  a  valiant  king. 
He  was  a  much-lo'ced  king. 

6.  A  song  cheered  the  soldiers : 
It  was  a  siceet  song. 

It  was  a  tender  song. 
It  was  a  home-like  song. 

b. 
Supply  the  comma  where  omitted  in  the  punctuation  of  the  ad- 
jectives in  the  following  sentences.* 

1.  A  grand  gloomy  and  peculiar  drama  was  played. 

2.  A  free  patriotic  liberty-loving  people  are  hard  to  conquer. 

3.  Reserved  and  proud  haughty  and  ambitious,  how  could  lie  be 

beloved  by  the  people  ? 

4.  Tell  me  the  old  old  story. 

5.  The  sailor  had  a  large  strong  hard  and  sunburned  hand. 

6.  The  garden  was  filled  with  rare  costly  beautiful  sweet-scented 

flowers. 

7.  Jane  had  a  short  sensible  well -written  well -spelled  and  well- 

punctuated  composition. 

8.  The  condor  is  the  largest  strongest  swiftest  and  most  tireless  of 

birds  of  prey. 

XVI.— SUBJECT  MODIFIED :  By  a  Possessive  Noun, 

The  girl  has  a  book,  and  the  girVs  book  is  here. 

Explanation. — The  noun  "girl"  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "  has."     But  the  form  "  girl's  "  is  not  used  as  a  subject :  it  is 

*  Though  the  adjectives  in  these  sentences  are  not  in  every  instance  modi- 
fiers of  the  subject  noun,  they  illustrate  equally  well  the  rules  for  the  punctua- 
tion of  adjectives  joined  with  the  subject. 


SUBJECT    MODIFIED. 


33 


joined  with  tlie  noun  ^'book"  to  tell  whose  book  we  are  speak- 
ing of. 

The  form  "  girPs  "  is  made  from  the  form  "  girl "  by  adding  the 
letter  s  with  the  mark  called  an  apostrophe  (')  before  it.  This 
form  of  the  noun  is  named  the  possessive  case. 

Definition. — The  possessive  ease  is  that  form  whicli  a  noun  has 
in  order  to  denote  ownership  or  possession. 

Second  Modifier. — The  subject  may  be  modified  by  a  noun  in 
the  possessive  ease. 


NOTES. 

I.  As  a  preparation  for  waiting  possessive  forms  in  the  exercises 
given  below,  the  pupil  should  carefully  read  over  the  rules  for  forming 
the  possessive  case  singular  and  plural*  (see  page  89). 

II.  For  practice,  copy  the  following : 

POSSESSIVE  rOUM,  OB  CASK. 


8UKJECT  FORM,  OR  C.VSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

lion 

lion's, 

lions' 

scholar 

scholar's, 

scholars' 

valley 

valley's, 

valleys' 

city 

city's. 

cities' 

wife 

wife's. 

Avives' 

potato 

potato's, 

potatoes' 

fox 

fox's. 

foxes' 

calf 

calfs. 

calves' 

dwarf 

dwarfs, 

dwarfs' 

tooth 

tooth's. 

teeth's 

brooch 

brooch's, 

brooches' 

sheei^ 

sheep's. 

sheei3's 

child 

child's. 

children's 

*  Though,  in  the  order  of  development,  the  consideration  of  the  possessive 
case  belongs  properly  under  Section  IV.,  where  the  full  treatment  will  bo 
found,  it  seems  necessary  for  practical  reasons  that  the  mode  of  forming  the 
possessive  should  here  be  taken  up  by  anticipation. 

P,  2 


04  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   II. 

EXERCISE    15. 
a. 

Select  the  nouns  in  the  ^055emve  form. 

1.  John  tore  Henry's  book,  2.  The  man's  face  is  black.  .  3.  I 
admire  your  fatlier's  house.  4.  The  horse's  leg  was  broken. 
5.  The  cat  scratcl>ed  the  boy's  face.  C.  Lend  me  your  broth- 
er's knife.  7.  Papa's  horses  fell  down.  8.  The  dog's  ears 
were  cropped.  9.  The  earth's  surface  consists  of  land  and 
water.     10.  We  saw  the  lion's  mane. 

1). 

Rewrite  the  cxpressiyns  below,  changing  the  italicized  nouns  into 

the  possessive  form.                                                                   .  - 
Model  :  "  The  bonnet  of  Mary  ^^  =  Marifs  bonnet. 

1.  The  bonnet  of  Mary.     %  The  shoes  of  the  children.  3.  The 

house  of  Mr.  Jacob.    4.  The  j)laythings  of  the  Way.  5.  The 

carriage  of  the  general.     6.  The  lapdog  of  the  lady.  7.  Tiie 

tail  of  the  slieeji.     8.  The  tails  of  the  sheep  (several).  0.  The 
hoofs  of  the  oxen. 

c. 

Write  the  following  possessive  singulars  in  the  plural  form. 

1.  The  horse's  teeth.  2.  The  deer's  horns.  3.  The  child's  play- 
things. 4.  The  hero's  harp ;  the  lover's  lute.  5.  A  woman's 
dress.  6.  The  soldier's  gun.  7,  Our  teacher's  greatest  de- 
sire, 8.  A  prince's  favor.  9.  Tlic  sparrow^'s  nest.  10.  Tlie 
gentleman's  umbrella. 


XVII.— POSSESSITE  MODIFIERS:  Analysis. 

Analyze  according  to  the  model  the  following  sentences. 

Model  :  *'  Our  country's  history  is  full  of  interest.'' 
This  is  a  simple  sentence:  "history"  i»  the  simple  subject;  it  h 


POSSESSIVE    MODIFIERS.  35 

modified  by  "  our/'  and  by  ''  country's,"  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case. 
"  Is  full  of  interest "  is  the  predicate. 

1.  The  spider's  web  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  work. 

2.  The  minstrel's  task  is  done. 

3.  Tl\e  boy's  bravery  was  rewarded.     . 

4.  Ladies'  shoes  are  sold  liere. 

5.  The  wolf  s  long  howl  was  heard. 

6.  Birds'  nests  attract  boys. 

7.  Longfellow's  Evangeline  is  a  beautiful  poem. 


XVIIL— POSSESSIVE  MODIFIERS:  Synthesis. 

Unite   each  group  of  statements  into  a  single  sentence,  using, 
possessive  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

Model: 

The  army  melted  away  in  Russia,  "i      ^^ 

T-  .1,  jy  -KT     1  (  =:Napoleon  s  miffhty  army  melt- 

'    It  was  the  army  of  Napoleon.  >        ^  ^         .    ^      . 

T.  .  7 .  \      ed  away  m  Russia. 

It  was  a  mighty  army.  J  '^ 

1.  The  doll  was  stolen. 

It  was  the  doll  of  the  girl. 
It  was  Q. pretty  doll. 
It  was  a  icax  doll. 

2.  Deeds  are  not  forgotten. 

The  deeds  of  men  are  spoken  of. 
The  good  deeds  of  men  are  spoken  of. 

3.  Courage  freed  Switzerland. 

It  was  the  courage  of  William  Tell. 
It  was  his  patriotic  courage. 

4.  A  footprint  in  the  sand  startled  Robinson  Crusoe. 
It  was  the  footprint  of  a  iimn. 

5.  A  web  is  a  wonderful  object. 
The  web  of  a  spider  is  spoken  of. 


36  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

6.  The  roar  was  heard  in  the  night. 
It  was  the  roar  of  the  Mllow, 
It  was  a  deep  roar. 
It  was  a  hoarse  roar. 


XIX.— SUBJECT  MODIFIED :  By  a  Noun  in  Apposition. 

William,  the  young  UacJcsmith^  shoes  horses. 

Analysis. — What  is  the  simple  subject  of  this  sentence  ?  What 
use  has  the  word  "  blacksmith  ?"  The  word  "  blacksmith  "  explains 
which  "  William  "  is  meant. 

Explanation. — When  a  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing 
as  another  noun  is  placed  beside  it  to  explain  its  meaning,  the 
explanatory  noun  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  the  word  which 
it  explains. 

Definition. — A  noun  in  apposition  is  a  noun  joined  to  anollier 
noun  to  explain  it. 

Third.  Modifier.  —  Tlie  subject  may  be  modified  by  a  noun  in 
apposition. 

EXERCISE    16. 

Select  the  nouns  in  apposition,  and  mention  with  what  word  each 
is  in  apposition. 

Model:  The  noun  "father"  is  in  apposition  with  the  noun  "Washing- 
ton." 

1.  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  our  first  president. 

2.  The  statesman  Jefferson*  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 

ence. 

*  The  noun  in  apposition  generally  follows  the  noun  with  whieh  It  is  in  ap- 
position (called  the  2'>^'incipal  term).  But  sometimes,  as  in  this  instance,  the  ap- 
positive  comes  first.  To  determine  the  principal  term,  inquire  "What  is  the 
name  of  the  principal  object  (person  or  thing)  spoken  of?" 


APPOSITIVE    MODIFIERS.  37 

3.  Milton,  the  illustrious  English  poet,  was  blind. 

4.  Next  came  Thomas,  the  boy  who  carries  the  mail. 

5.  That  faithful  animal,  the  horse,  is  often  abused. 

6.  The  Somerset,  a  phantom  ship,  was  swinging  at  her  moorings. 


XX.— APPOSITIVE  MODIFIERS:  Analysis. 

Analyze  according  to  the  model  the  following  sentences. 

Model  :  Howard,  the  distinguished  philanthropist,  was  beloved  by  all. 

This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  simjjle  subject  is  "  Howard ;"  it  is 
modified  by  "  philanthropist,"  a  noun  in  apposition  ;  "  philanthropist " 
is  modified  by  the  adjectives  "  the ''  and  "  distinguished."  The  predi- 
cate is  *'  w^as  beloved  by  all." 

1.  James  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the  stoam-engine,  was  born  ia 

Scotland. 

2.  Socrates,  the  Greek  philosopher,  was  poisoned. 
8.  Peter  the  Hermit  preached  the  first  Crusade. 

4.  Night,  sable  goddess,  stretches  her  sceptre. 

5.  David,  the  psalmist,  was  king  of  Israel. 

C.  That  faithful  animal,  the  dog,  w^atches  our  houses. 


XXI.— APPOSITIVE  MODIFIERS :  Synthesis. 

I.  A  noun  in  apposition  may  itself  be  modified  by  other  words. 
Thus— 

Warren,  the  gallant  young  hero,  fell  at  Bunker  Hill. 

The  noun  "  hero  "  is  in  apposition  with  "  Warren  ;"  at  the  same  time 
the  appositivc  noun  is  modified  by  the  adjectives  "the,"  "gallant," 
and  "young."  The  whole  appositive  expression — "  the-gallant-young 
hero  " — is  set  off  by  commas  from  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

II.  Punctuation. — Nouns  in  apposition,  especially  when  modified 
by  other  words,  are  set  off  from  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence  by  the 
comma. 


38  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   II. 

NOTE. — The  two  nouns  arc  not  separated  by  the  comma  if  both 
words  have  become  so  closely  connected  as  to  form  really  one  name: 
as,  " Paul  the  Ai^ostle^'''  "  Peter  the  Hermit:^ 

III.  Sentence -buildins?. — The  sentence — 

Warren,  the  gallant  young  hero,  fell  at  Bunker  Hill — 
may  be  separated  into  several  distinct  statements:  thus— 

1.  Warren  fell  at  Bunker  Hill. 

2.  He  was  a  hero. 

3.  He  w^as  a  young  hero. 

4.  He  was  a  gallant  hero. 

By  the  reverse  process,  the  following  statements  may  be  com- 
bined into  one  sentence. 

Columbus  w^as  persecuted.  \ 

Columbus  w^as  a  naxigator.  (  =Columbus,  a  great  Italian  navigator, 

He  was  an /ifrtZM??.  i      was  persecuted. 

He  was  great.  ) 


EXERCISE    17. 

a. 

Unite  each  group  of  statements  into  a  simple  sentence,  as  in  the 
model. 

1.  Sago  is  excellent  for  sick  people  and  young  children. 
It  is  a  food. 

It  is  a  cheap  food. 

It  is  a  nourishing  food. 

2.  Bryant  wrote  "  Thanatopsis.'* 
He  is  a  poet. 

He  is  an  American  poet. 
He  is  an  illustrious  poet. 


APPOSITIVE    MODIFIERS.  39 

3.  Benjamin  Franklin  learned  his  trade. 

He  was  a  2^Mosophe)\  .         " 

He  was  a  distinguished  philosopher. 
He  learned  his  trade  in  the  office  of  his  brother. 
His  brother  was  a  ^>rm^<?r  in -Boston. 

4.  David  slew  Goliath. 
David  was  the  s^;i  r?/*e7^ss^. . 
Goliath  was  a  Philistine. 

5.  William  the  Conqueror  defeated  Harold. 
Harold  was  the  Saxon  Mng. 

G.  The  whale  is  found  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  seas. 
It  is  the  largest  [inammal]  of  mammals. 

7.  Coral  is  highly  prized  for  ornaments. 

It  is  a  secretion  from  the  body  of  an  animal. 
T\\\^  Vi\\mvA\\?>  adlcd  a  polyp. 

b. 

Copy  the  following  piece,  drawing  a  line  under  each  noun  which 
is  in  apposition. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  HASTINGS. 

The  English,  keeping  side  by  side  in  a  great  mass,  cared  no  more 
for  the  shower  of  Norman  arrows  than  if  they  had  been  showers  of 
Norman  rain.  When  the  Norman  horsemen  rode  against  them,  with 
their  battle-axes  they  cut  men  and  horses  down.  The  Normans  gave 
way.  The  English  pressed  forward.  Duke  William,  the  Norman 
commander,  pretended  to  retreat.  The  eager  English  followed.  Duke 
William's  army  turned  again,  and  fell  upon  the  English  with  great 
slaughter.  The  sun  rose  high,  and  sank,  and  the  battle  still  raged. 
Through  all  the  wild  October  day  the  clash  and  din  resounded  in 
the  air.  In  the  red  sunset,  and  in  the  white  moonlight,  heaps  upon 
heaps  of  dead  men  lay  strewn  all  over  the  ground.  Harold,  the  Saxon 
king,  wounded  in  the  eye  by  an  arrow,  was  nearly  blind.  His  brothers 
were  already  killed.  At  length  Harold,  the  king,  received  a  mortal 
wound  and  dropped.  The  English  broke  and  fled.  The  Normans 
rallied,  and  the  day  was  lost. — Dickens's  ChihVs  History  of  England. 


40  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 


XXII.— SUBJECT  MODIFIED:  By  a  Phrase. 

1.  A  thing  ofheauty  is  a  joy  forever. 

2.  Like  a  glow-worm  golden 

In  a  dell  of  dew. 

Analysis.  —  The  expression  "  of  beauty "  is  used  to  modify 
"  thing."  We  might  express  the  same  idea  by  using  the  adjective 
beautiful :  "  a  beautiful  thing." 

The  expression  "  of  dew  "  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  the 
word  "  dell,"  and  *'  dell  of  dew  "  signifies  the  same  thing  as  deivy 
dell. 

Explanation. — In  each  of  these  cases  we  have  a  noun  which  is 
joined  (or  related)  by  a  preposition  to  another  word.  An  expres- 
sion of  this  kind  is  called  a  phrase.  It  forms  a  part,  or  element, 
of  a  sentence,  just  as  if  it  were  a  single  word. 

Definition  I. — A  phrase  is  a  combination  of  related  words  form- 
in*  an  element  of  a  sentence. 

Definition  II. — A  phrase  which  modifies  the  subject  (or  any 
noun)  is  called  an  adjective  phrase. 

Fourth  Modifier. — The  subject  may  be  modified  by  an  adjective 
phrase. 

NOTE. — Many  phrases  consist  of  a  preposition  and  a  noun.  Such 
phrases  may  frequently  be  clianged  into  single  w^ords :  thus — 

The  man  in  armor  =:  the  armored  man  (adj.). 

Our  cottage  hy  the  sea-side  =  our  sea-side  cottage  (adj.). 
A  man  of  note  =  a  noted  man  (adj.). 

A  w^oman  of  distinction       =  a  distinguisTied  woman  (adj.). 
A  hat  icith  three  corners       =  a  three-cornered  hat  (adj.). 


PHRASE    MODIFIERS.  /  41 

EXERCISE    18. 
a. 

Change  the  italicized  icords  into  2^^*ctses, 
1.  It  is  pleasant  to  lie  on  ajloicenj  bed. 
3.  The  army  advanced  hastihj. 

3.  Jenny  Lind  sang  sweetly. 

4.  Sensible  men  sometimes  differ  in  opinion. 

5.  The  professor  delivered  an  historical  lecture. 

6.  There  w^ere  no  raih'oads  tJien, 

h. 

Change  the  italicized  phrases  into  single  tvords. 

1.  A  man  of  courage  does  not  fear  death. 

2.  We  sailed  on  the  river  by  the  light  of  the  moon. 

3.  The  bear  sprang  in  haste  from  his  bed  of  grass. 

4.  Learning  is  the  eye  of  the  mind. 

5.  A  settler /rom  Australia  returned  last  week. 

G.  People  at  this  time  live  better  than  they  ever  did  before. 

7.  The  old  bucket  ofoah  hangs  in  the  well. 


XXIII.— PHRASE  MODIFIERS:  Analysis. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : 

Model  :  *'  The  house  on  the  hill  is  burnt." 
-     This  is  a  simple  sentence:  "house"  is  the  simple  subject;  it  is 
modified  by  "the,"  an  adjective,  and  by  "on  the  hill,"  an  adjective 
phrase.     "Is  burnt"  is  the  predicate. 


EXERCISE    19. 

1.  The  wings  of  the  eagle  are  very  strong. 

2.  The  study  of  history  is  useful. 

3.  Roads  in  the  country  are  often  muddy. 


^2  THE    SE>'TENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

4.  Grapes  from  California  are  much  esteemed. 

5.  The  man  with  the  white  coat  has  gone. 

6.  The  light  of  the  sun  nourishes  plants. 

7.  The  bird  in  the  bush  sang  sweetly.  .         . 


XXIV.-PREDICATE  MODIFIED:  By  an  Adverb. 

1.  Alice  plays  nicely, 

2.  Thomas  w^alks  Jiere, 

3.  We  will  come  soon. 

Analysis, — The  word  "  nicely  "  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
"  plays,"  by  expressing  hoio  Alice  plays.  The  word  "  here  "  modi- 
fies the  meaning  of  the  verb  "  walks,"  by  expressing  where  Thomas 
walks ;  the  word  "  soon  "  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  *^  will 
come,"  by  expressing  when  we  will  come. 

Explanation. — It  is  often  necessary  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  in  the  predicate  by  a  w^ord  expressing  how,  ivhen,  or  where. 
For  this  purpose  we  use  the  class  of  words  called  adverbs,  (See 
definition  of  the  adverb,  page  9.)  The  words  "  nicely,"  "  hastily," 
and  "  soon  "  are  adverbs. 

First  Modifier.  —  Tlie  predicate  yerb  may  be  modified  by  an 
adverb. 


EXERCISE    20. 
a. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences.* 

Model:    *' Charles  was  here  yesterday."     This  is  a  simple  sentence: 

*  At  this  stage  of  progress  the  analj'sis  is  to  inclnde  the  subject  and  its 
n»oditiers,  and  the  predicate  yerb  Avith  its  adverbial  modifiers. 


PREDICATE    MODIFIED.  43 

•'  Charles ''  is  the  subject ;  "was  here  yesterday  "  is  the  predicate ;  the  predi- 
cate verb  "was"  is  modified  by  the  adverbs  "here"  and  "yesterday." 

1.  Charles  was  here  yesterday. 

2.  The  wind  blew  terribly. 
8.  We  must  win  now. 

4.  The  girls  laughed  heartily. 

5.  She  seldom  sees  her  brother. 

G.  Oil  have  I  heard  of  Lucy  Gray. 

7.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

b. 

Modify  each  predicate  verb  by  an  adverb. 

Model  :  "  Our  fields  produce  dbundautlyV 

1.  Oar  fields  produce 

2.  Foxes  run 

)•.  Your  friend  died  .......... 

4.  The  exercise  is written. 

5.  Young  people  should  rise 

0.  We  shall  rest 

7.  The  cricket  chirps 

8.  The  old  soldier  lies 

9.  It  is  very  hot 

10.  The  tables turned. 

11.  Homer's  Iliad  has  been read. 

12.  Were  you at  Niagara? 


XXV.— PREDICATE  MODIFIED:  Adverbial  Phrase. 

1.  A  great  man  lives  here, 

2.  A  great  man  lives  in  this  placed 

Analysis. — The  word  *'  here"  is  an  adverb,  and  modifies  the  pred- 
icate verb  "  Uvcs."     The  expression  **  in  this  place"  is  a  phrase,  and 


44  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sL        II. 

has  the  same  meaning  m  *'  here  :"  it  modifies  ''  lives,"  and  hence  is 
called  an  adverbial  phrase. 

Definition. — An  adverbial  phrase  is  a  phrase  which  modifies  a    ^ 
verb.* 

Second  Modifier. — The  predicate  verb  may  be  modified  by  an 
adverbial  phrase, 

NOTE. — An  adverbial  phrase  is  generally  introduced  by  a  prepo- 
sition :  as,  "  in  the  street,"  "  through  the  woods."  But  in  some  phrases 
the  preposition  is  not  expressed:  as,  "The  war  lasted  ten  years'''' 
{z=iduring  ten  years) ;  "  we  walked  thirty  miles^''  {=.a  distance  of  thirty 
miles).  Every  such  expression,  when  it  has  the  meaning  of  an  adverb, 
is  an  adverbial  phrase. 


ity. 


EXERCISE    2i. 
a* 

Change  the  italicized  adverbs  into  adverbial  ^9^r«5^5. 

Model:  "The  army  advanced  rapidhf =T\iq  army  advanced  ivith  rapid- 

1.  The  army  advanced  rapidly. 

2.  The  lady  spoke  calmly. 

3.  Caesar  returned  triumphantly. 

4.  Kate  sings  sweetly. 

5.  The  child  followed  the  good  man  cheerfully. 

6.  An  old  elm  grew  here  formerly. 

7.  That  man  expresses  himself  correctly. 

8.  Take  her  up  tenderly. 

9.  Sorrowfully  our  parents  see  our  faults. 

10.  Joyfully  we  greet  the  opening  flowers  of  spring. 

1^^  In  the   foregoing   sentences  state  what  verb  each   phrase 
modifies. 

•^''  It  will  hereafter  be  seen  that  an  adverbial  phrase  may  also  modify  an  ad- 
jective or  another  adverb. 


PREDICATE    MODIFIED.  45 

Make  sentences  with  the  following  adverbial  phrases. 

Model  :  "In  his  stall."— The  horse  stands  in  his  stall. 

In  his  stall ;  on  tlie  table ;  to  the  church ;  into  the  store ;  till  to- 
morrow ;  among  the  corn  ;  before  the  glass ;  across  the  bridge ; 
over  the  river ;  all  the  clay ;  from  every  opening  flower ;  after 
the  storm;  to  his  long  home;  near  the  fire;  since  yesterday; 
above  the  w^ater ;  under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree. 

c. 

In  the  following  sentences  modify  the  predicate  verbs  by  supply- 
ing adverbial  phrases  expressing  time. 

Model:    "The  meeting  begins "  —  The  meeting  begins  at  seven 

o'clock. 

1.  The  meeting  begins 

2.  I  shall  go  to  school 

3.  America  was  discovered 

4.  The  stars  shine 

5.  The  battle  lasted  ......... 

G.  Congress  meets 

7.  We  have  a  holiday 

In  the  following  sentences  modify  the  predicate  verbs  by  supply- 
ing adverbial  phrases  expressing  place,  %.  ! 

Model:  "I  planted  the  flowers "—I  planted  the  flowers  in  the  7S 

garden. 

1.  I  planted  the  flowers 

2.  Henry  is  studjdng 

3.  Napoleon  died 

4.  Tea  is  brought 

5.  Columbus  sailed  ....i.... 

6.  Cotton  is  groAvn 

7.  My  grandfather  resides  


46  THE    SEA'TEXCE    AXD    ITS    ELEMENTS.  |  SEC.  II. 

e. 

In  the  following  sentences  modify  the  predicate  verbs  by  supply- 
ing adverbial  phrases  expressing  manner,  cause,  or  by  ivhom  or  what. 

Model  :   *'  She  sings " — She  sings  like  a  nightingale. 

**  Printing  was  invented ''—Printing  was  invented  hy  Guieuherg. 

1.  She  sings 

2.  Printing  was  invented 

3.  Tlie  water  rushed 

4.  Goliath  was  killed 

5.  He  made  his  fortune 

C.  That  mountain  is higli. 

7.  The  steamboat  was  invented 

8.  The  lady  fainted 


XXVL— PREDICATE  MODIFIED:  Analysis. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : 

Model  :  "  Many  a  time,  on  holidays,  we  rambled  through  the  woods.'* 
This  is  a  simple  sentence:  *' wx"  is  the  subject;  "rambled"  is  the 
predicate  verb :  the  predicate  verb  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrases 
"  many  a  time,"  "  on  holidays,"  and  "  through  the  woods." 


EXERCISE    22. 

1.  Many  a  time,  on  holidays,  we  rambled  through  the  woods. 

2.  There  he  lived  in  days  of  yore. 

(3.  The  sun  rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  w^est. 

4.  The  lad  leaped  from  the  boat  into  the  river. 

5.  The  Greeks  took  Troy  by  stratagem. 

6.  The  moon  was  reflected  in  the  lake. 

7.  Columbus  sailed  from  Palos  in  1492. 

8.  The  village  smithy  stands  under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree. 
0.  We  came  on  the  trail  of  the  Indians  in  the  evening. 

10.  8hc  perished  'mid  Italian  flowers. 


PREDICATE    MODIFIED.  47 

XXVIL— PREDICATE  MODIFIED:  Synthesis. 

I.  Punctuation. — The  following  rules  of  punctuation  apply  to  ad- 
verbs and  adverbial  phrases : 

EuLE  I. — Two  or  more  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases  in  a  series  are 
separated  by  commas :  as— 

1.  Sloicly^  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

2.  He  reads  rapidly^  Jiumtly^  and  correctly. 

3.  He  goes  from  grate  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe. 

4.  I  went  from  New  York,  througli  Liverpool,  to  Bombay,  by  way 

of  Suez. 

NOTE. — Ttco  adverbs  or  adverbial  phrases  joined  by  a  conjunction 
are  not  separated  by  commas:  as,  ^'' Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him 
down." 

Rule  II. — An  adverbial  phrase  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  or 
otherwise  out  of  its  natural  order,  is  generally  set  off  by  the  comma :  as— 

1.  Over  the  great  plains,  the  buffalo  still  roams. 

2.  Columbus,  in  1493,  returned  from  his  voyage  to  the  West  Indies. 

NOTE. — In  what  is  called  the  ^^ natural  order"  of  a  sentence  the 
subject  comes  first,  the  predicate  verb  next,  and  then  follow  all  the  ad- 
verbial modifiers.  But  this  is  by  no  means  the  most  pleasing  order. 
Good  writers,  when  they  employ  two  or  more  adverbial  phrases  in  the 
same  sentence,  distribute  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  an  agreeable, 
harmonious  whole.  It  is  when  phrases  are  thus  out  of  their  natural 
order,  and  in  their  literary  order,  that  the  rule  for  the  comma  applies. 

II.  Sentence -building. — In  the  following  exercise  several  sepa- 
rate statements,  each  containing  a  phrase,  are  to  be  combined  into 
n  single  simple  sentence :  thus — 

^Columbus  returned  from  his  voyage. 
Separate  Statements. ..  -'  He  returned  from  his  voyage  to  the  West  Indies. 

(He  returned  in  1493. 
Coml>hicd.— Columbus  returned  from  his  voyage  to  tlie  West  Indies  in  1493. 

In  this  sentence  there  are  three  phrases— (1)'^ from  his  voyage,"' 


48  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.   II. 

(2)  "  to  the  AVest  Indies,"  (3)  ''  in  1493  "—and  they  are  all  brought  to- 
gether in  the  predicate.  The  sentence  would  be  more  agreeable  if 
arranged  thus — 

In  1493,  Columbus  returned  from  his  voyage  to  the  West  Indies ; 
or, 

Columbus,  in  1493,  returned  from  his  voyage  to  the  West  Indies. 

Direction. — Several  phrases  used  in  the  same  sentence  should 
be  distributed  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the  sentence  most  agree- 
able to  the  ear. 


EXERCISE    23. 

Combine  as  in  the  model ; 

1.  The  teacher  of  our  academy  gave  prizes. 
He  gave  them  on  exliibition-day. 

He  gave  them/(9r  scholarship. 

2.  Napoleon  invaded  Russia. 

He  invaded  it  in  the  icinter  of  1812. 
He  invaded  it  with  a  great  army, 

3.  Gold  was  discovered. 

It  was  discovered  in  California. 
It  was  discovered  in  the  year  1849. 

4.  Close  at  hand  runs  the  highway. 
It  nins  to  the  little  railroad  depot. 
The  depot  is  in  the  'valley. 

5.  The  first  Congress  met. 
It  met  at  Philadelphia. 
It  met  in  the  year  1774. 

6.  The  battle  began. 

It  began  the  next  morning. 

It  began  at  dayh-ealc. 

It  bepiran  in  terriUe  earnest. 


PREDICATE    WITH    OBJECT.  49 


7.  Columbus  landed. 

He  landed  early  next  morning. 
He  landedy?w7i  his  vessel^ 

8.  The  swallows  built  their  nests. 
This  was  in  the  spring-time. 

They  built  them  under  the  eaxes  of  the  lam. 
The  nests  were  built  in  a  long  row. 


XXYHL— PREDICATE  WITH  OBJECT. 

1.  Carpenters  build  houses, 

2.  The  hunter  shot  a  lear, 

8.  I  teach  Mm  and  he  teaches  me. 

Analysis. — The  noun  "houses"  denotes  what  carpenters  build; 
the  noun  "bear"  names  what  the  hunter  shot.  The  pronoun 
"him"  denotes  whom  I  teach,  and  the  pronoun  "me"  denotes 
ivhom  he 'teaches. 

Explanation. — In  such  sentences  as  "  Birds  fly,"  "  Fishes  swim," 
the  verbs  "fly"  and  "swim,"  when  used  with  a  subject,  as  "birds," 
"fishes,"  express  a  complete  meaning — they  make  complete  state- 
ments.    But  when  we  say — 

Columbus  discovered 

Watt  invented 

no  complete  statement  is  made.  We  wait  to  be  told  of  some  thing 
or  object  which  Columbus  discovered  or  Watt  invented. 

A  word  that  is  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  a  verb  denot- 
ing action  is  called  the  object  of  the  verb.  In  the  examples  at  the 
beginning  of  this  lesson,  "houses"  is  the  object  of  "build;" 
"bear"  is  the  object  of  "shot;"  "him"  is  the  object  of  "teach," 
and  "  me  "  is  the  object  of  "  teaches." 

A  verb  that  requires  an  object  in  order  to  make  a  complete  state- 
ment is  called  a  transitive  verb. 

c 


50  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

Definition  I. — A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  denotes  an  action 
terminating  on  some  object. 

Definition  II. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  the  word  or 
words  nsed  to  complete  the  statement  made  by  the  verb. 


EXERCISE    24. 
a. 

Supply  objects  after  the  following  transitive  verbs. 

1.  Indians  bunt 

2.  The  doctor  cures 

3.  Whitney  invented 

4.  The  frost  kills 

5.  Rain  refreshes 

6.  William  CuUen  Bryant  wrote 

b. 

Make  sentences  by  supplying  a  verb  after  each  subject,  and  then 
selecting  from  the  list  a  suitable  object. 


Subjects. 

lU&lUiUU 

Objects. 

The  musician. 

A  baby. 

recitation. 

corn. 

The  carpenter. 

A  robin. 

rattle. 

violin. 

The  doctor. 

A  horse. 

nest. 

play. 

The  teacher. 

A  boy. 

patients. 

houses. 

c. 

1.  Write  a  sentence  telling  what  you  saw  at  the  museum. 

2.  Write  a  sentence  telling  several  things  that  the  carpenter  males. 

3.  Write  a  sentence  telling  three  things  that  your  state  produces. 

4.  Write  a  sentence  naming  four  things  that  you  study. 

5.  Write  a  sentence  specifying  several  objects  that  the  hardware 
merchant  sells. 

6.  Write  a  sentence  naming  several  books  that  you  have  read. 

B^*  Underline  all  the  ol)jects. 


PREDICATE    WITH    OBJECT.  51 

XXIX.— PREDICATE  WITH  OBJECTS  Analysis. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : 

Model  :  *'  The  hunter  shot  a  bear.'* 

This  is  a  simple  sentence:  ''the  hunter"  is  the  subject;  "shot  a 
bear"  is  the  predicate;  "shot"  is  the  predicate  verb,  and  "bear" 
is  the  object. 

1.  Carpenters  build  houses. 

2.  The  Egyptians  embalmed  bodies, 

3.  The  minister  preached  a  sermon. 

4.  Music  soothes  the  mind. 

5.  James  has  written  a  letter. 

6.  Fools  despise  knowledge. 

7.  Physicians  prescribe  medicines. 

8.  Patriots  love  their  country. 

9.  Education  improves  the  mind. 
10.  Teachers  hear  recitations. 


XXX.— PREDICATE  WITH  OBJECT:  Synthesis. 

I.  Punctuation. — Rule.  Three  or  more  objects  of  the  same  verb  (or 
two  if  not  connected  by  a  conjunction)  are  separated  by  commas :  as— 

1.  Our  state  produces  wheat,  corn,  potatoes,  and  fruit. 

2.  Our  state  produces  peaches  and  pears. 

II.  Sentence -building. — Several  statements  in  which  the  same 
verb  is  used,  but  with  different  objects,  may  be  combined  into  a 
single  sentence  by  using  the  verb  only  once:  thus — 

Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost.  ']  =Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost, 

Milton  wrote  Paradise  Begained.       j-      Paradise  Regained^  and  sev- 
Milton  wrote  several  other  poems.  J      era!  other  poems. 

f 


52  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  L^EC.  II. 

EXERCISE    25. 

Combine  the  statements  into  single  sentences,  as  in  the  model. 

1.  We  caught  a  pickerel. 
We  caught  three  trout. 
We  caught  four  llue-fisJi. 

2.  Railroads  transport  persons. 
Railroads  transport  cattle. 
Railroads  transport  goods. 

3.  Mary  studies  geography. 
Mary  studies  history. 
Mary  studies  lotany. 
Mary  studies  drawing. 

4.  Alfred  has  a  dog. 
Alfred  has  two  rahUts. 
Alfred  has  six  pigeons. 
Alfred  has  several  other  jjets. 

6.  In  a  druggist's  store  you  may  find  rhubarb.  * 

In  a  druggist's  stor§  you  may  find  calomel. 

In  a  druggist's  store  you  may  find  senna. 

In  a  druggist's  store  you  may  find  ipecacuanha. 

In  a  druggist's  store  you  may  find  various  other  drugs. 
6.  Dickens  wrote  The  Piclcwick  Papers. 

Dickens  wrote  Oliver  Ticist. 

Dickens  wrote  Dowibey  and  Son. 

Dickens  wrote  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 

Dickens  wrote  Ttiany  other  novels. 


XXXI.— PREDICATE  ADJECTIYE  AND  NOMINATIVE. 

1.  Gold  is  yellow.    Gold  is  a  metal. 

2.  Alfred  was  Icing.    Jefferson  was  a  statesman. 

3.  The  boy  becomes  a  man. 

Analysis. — Do  the  words  "  Gold  is  . . . ."  make  a  complete  state- 
ment?    They  do  not.     We  must  supply  some  word,  as  ''yellow,"  or" 


PREDICATE    ADJECTIVE    AND    NOMINATIVE.  53 

*' metal,"  telling  what  gold  is.  In  like  manner  the  words  "Alfred 
was ....,"  "  Jefferson  was ....,"  and  "The  boy  becomes ....," 
make  no  statement  until  w^e  have  completed  the  predicate  by  using 
w^ords  to  denote  what  Alfred  and  Jefferson  were^  and  what  the  boy 
becomes. 

Explanation. — The  verbs  "  is,"  "  was,"  and  "  becomes  "  arc  not 
transitive  verbs,  because  they  do  not  express  action ;  hence  the 
words  used  with  these  verbs  to  complete  the  statement  are  not 
called  objects. 

An  adjective  used  to  complete  the  sense  of  a  verb  not  expressing 
action  is  called  a  predicate  adjective,  and  a  noun  used  in  the  same 
way  is  called  a  predicate  nominative, 

\  Definition  I. — A  predicate  adjective  is  an  adjective  used  to  com-  V 
plete  the  sense  of  a  predicate  verb. 

\  Definition  II. — A  predicate  nominative  is  a  noun  (or  pronoun)  \i 
used  to  complete  the  sense  of  a  predicate  verb. 

NOTE. — There  are  not  many  verbs  of  the  kind  spoken  of  in  this 
lesson.  The  one  most  used  is  the  verb  to  be^  w^hich  has  various  forms 
— i8,  am,  are^  icas^  icere,  have  been,  etc.     Other  verbs  of  this  class  are : 

become as,  "  Mary  became  queen.'''' 

feel as, "  Velvet  feels  smooth,-^ 

look as,  "The  baby  looks  happy. ^"^ 

seem as,  "  Success  seems  secure.'''' 

smell as,  "The  rose  smells /ra^rawf." 

taste as,  "  Vinegar  tastes  S(?wn" 


EXERCISE    26. 
a. 

Select  the  predicate  adjectives  and  the  predicate  nominatives, 

1.  That  mountain  is  high.  3.  Oxygen  is  a  gas. 

,  2.  Contented  persons  are  happy.      4.  You  have  been  sick. 


54  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

5.  London  is  a  city.  9.  The  boy  seemed  dull. 

6.  David  became  king.  10.  The  boy  was  dull. 

7.  Molasses  is  a  liquid.  11.  The  boy  was  a  dunce. 

8.  The  syrup  tastes  sweet.  12.  Emily  felt  proud. 

b. 

Fill  out  the  blanks  first  by  an  adjective  complement,  then  by  a 

noun  complement.     When  done,  unite  the  two  statements  into  one 

sentence.  ^.^  .,t      . 

Model:  "Iroms " 

Iron  is  hard,  [Adjective] 

Iron  is  a  mdal.  [Nominative] 

Iron  is  a  hard  metal.    [Sentences  united.] 

1.  Iron  is 6.  The  moon  is 

2.  Sugar  is 7.  Diamonds  are 

3.  Paul  Jones  was 8.  James  has  been 

4.  Clarissa  will  be  9.  This  church  is 

5.  The  skv  is 10.  Franklin  was 


XXXIL— PREDICATE  WITH  COMPLEMENT:  Analysis. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : 

Model — 1.  *' All  men  are  mortal." 
This  is  a  simple  sentence:  "all  men"  is  the  subject,  "are  mortal" 
is  the  predicate;  "are"  is  the  predicate  verb,  and  "mortal"  is  the 
predicate  adjective. 

2.  "Frogs  are  animals." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence:  "frogs"  is  the  subject,"  "are  animals" 
is  the  predicate ;  "  are  "  is  the  predicate  verb,  and  "  animals  "  is  the 
predicate  nominative. 

1.  Raphael  was  an  artist. 

2.  The  eye  is  the  organ  of  sight. 

3.  The  Romans  were  warlike. 

4.  We  arc  wron^. 


PREDICATE    WITH    COMPLEMENT.  55 


5.  The  whale  is  a  mammal. 

6.  The  stars  are  distant. 

7.  Temperance  is  a  virtue. 

8.  Tadpoles  become  frogs. 

9.  A  chrysalis  becomes  a  butterfly. 

10.  The  children  seem  happy. 

11.  This  plum  tastes  acrid. 

12.  An  owl  looks  wise. 

13.  A  church  is  an  edifice. 


sxjm:m:-a.ky. 

I.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  a  complete 
thought. 

II.  The  subject  represents  that  of  which  something  is  stated. 

III.  The  predicate  tells  what  is  stated  of  the  subject. 

IV.  A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  but  one  subject  and 
one  predicate. 

V.  An  a^unct,  or  modifier,  is  a  word  or  words  added  to  another 
word  to  modify  its  meaning. 

VI.  The  simple  subject  may  be  modified  by — 

1.  An  adjective :  as,  "  Bright  stars  twinkle." 

2.  A  possessive  noun :  as,  "  The  loy'^s  bravery  was  rewarded.'' 

3.  A  noun  in  apposition :  as,  "  Milton,  the  poet^  was  blind." 

4.  An  adjective  phrase :  as,  "  The  study  of  history  is  useful." 

VII.  The  predicate  verb  may  be  modified  by — 

1.  An  adverb :  as,  "  The  fire  burns  'brightly. '''' 

2.  An  adverbial  phrase :  as,  "  Columbus  sailed  from  Palosy 

VIII.  A  verb  that  does  not  express  a  complete  statement  may  bo 
completed  by — 

1.  An  object :  as,  "  Columbus  discovered  Americay 

2.  A  predicate  adjective  :  as,  "  Gold  is  yellow^ 

3.  A  predicate  nominative :  as,  "  Gold  is  a  metals 


56  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

REVIEW    EXERCISE. 


Combine  each  of  the  following  sets  of  statements  into  a  well- 
constructed  simple  sentence.  Give  the  simple  subject  and  predicate, 
and  mention  the  modifiers  of  each. 

1.  We  skated. 

It  was  in  the  winter  evenings. 

The  evenings  were  cold.  / 

They  were  frosty. 

It  w^as  on  the  mill-pond. 

The  mill-pond  was  near  our  father^s  house. 

2.  A  boy  threatened  to  eat  me. 

It  was  during  my  first  day  at  school. 
He  w^as  a  big  boy. 
He  had  a  wide  mouth. 
He  had  large  teeth. 

3.  The  school-house  stood  on  a  hill. 
The  school-house  w^ns  old. 

It  was  red-colored. 

It  was  shabby.  I 

The  hill  was  bleak. 

It  w^as  cold. 

It  was  destitute  of  trees. 

4.  An  Italian  mariner  made  his  appearance. 

This  w^as  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  15th  century. 

He  was  a  citizen  of  Genoa. 

He  made  his  appearance  at  various  European  courts. 

5.  A  cook  made  his  appearance. 
He  was  fat. 

He  w^as  French. 

He  appeared  on  deck. 

It  was  soon  after  breakfast. 


REVIEW    EXERCISE.  57 

6.  The  beaver  constructs  [something]. 
It  is  his  house  that  he  constructs. 
He  constructs  it  with  great  skill. 
He  constructs  it  before  winter. 

7.  Leonidas  died. 
He  was  a  king. 

He  was  king  of  Sparta. 
He  died  like  a  hero. 
He  died  at  Thermopylse. 
Thermopylae  is  in  Greece. 

8.  The  boy  wrote. 

He  was  a  good  boy. 

He  wrote  a  letter. 

He  wrote  to  his  father. 

He  wrote  from  school. 

He  wrote  on  his  birthday. 

It  was  a  long  letter. 

He  wrote  it  early  in  the  morning. 

He  wrote  it  before  breakfast. 

9.  James  Watt  died  in  1819. 

He  was  the  great  improver  of  the  steam-engine. 

He  died  at  Heathfield. 

He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-four.  ^ 

10.  Washington  gained  a  victory. 

He  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army. 

The  victory  was  decisive. 

It  was  gained  over  the  British. 

The  battle  was  fought  at  Trenton. 

Trenton  is  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey. 

This  took  place  in  1776. 

b. 

1.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  subject  modified  by  two  ad- 
jectives. 

2.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  subject  modified  by  a  pos- 
sessive noun  and  an  adjective. 

02 


58  THE    SENTENCE    AND    ITS    ELEMENTS.  [sEC.  II. 

3.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  subject  modified  by  a  noun 
in  apposition. 

4.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  subject  modified  by  two  ad- 
jectives and  one  adjective  phrase. 

5.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  subject  modified  by  a  pos- 
sessive noun,  an  adjective,  and  a  phrase. 

\C.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  predicate  verb  modified  by 
three  adverbs. 
1.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  predicate  verb  modliied  by 
two  adverbial  phrases. 

8.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  wdth  the  subject  modified  by  an  ad- 
jective phrase,  and  the  predicate  verb  by  an  adverbial  phrase. 

9.  Write  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  predicate  verb  completed  by 
an  object. 

10.  AVrite  a  simple  sentence,  with  the  predicate  verb  completed  by 
a  predicate  adjective,  and  another  by  a  predicate  nominative. 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES, 
a. 

WMte  an  abstract  foom  memory  after  reading  the  following  piece: 
ANECDOTE  OF  DANIEL  WEBSTER. 
When  Daniel  entered  PhillijDS  Academy  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  he  was 
an  awkward  country  boy,  and  was  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  low- 
est class.  The  higher-class  boys  were  inclined  to  make  fun  of 
the  difiident  lad,  clad  in  homespun ;  but  Daniel,  taking  little 
notice  of  this  treatment,  applied  himself  to  study,  and  soon  rose 
to  the  head  of  his  class.  One  day  the  teacher  said  aloud  in 
school,  ''Daniel  Webster,  take  your  books  and  stand  uj),  sir!" 
Daniel  obeyed,  and  the  kind  old  man  continued :  "  Leave  the 
room,  and  go  into  a  higher  class.  Boys,  say  good-by  to  him,  for 
you  will  never  overtake  him."  They  never  did  overtake  him. 
He  went  through  college,  became  a  distinguished  lawyer  and 
orator,  a  United  States  senator,  and„the  great  expounder  of  the 
American  Constitution. 


COMPOSITION   EXERCISES.  59 

b. 

Write  a  composition  on  "  Squirrels,"  paying  attention  to  the 
following  points : 

1.  What  kinds  of  squirrels.  \ 

2.  Where  they  live.  _3  ^  xl""^ 

3.  How  they  live. 

4.  What  they  eat. 

5.  How  caught  or  killed. 

C.  An  anecdote,  or  an  account  of  a  squirrel-hunt. 

c. 

Write  from  memory  any  of  the  following  stories : 

1.  Little  Red  Riding-hood. 

2.  Cinderella. 

3.  Robinson  Crusoe  and  his  goats. 

d. 

Write  short  compositions  on  any  of  the  following  subjects. 
METALS  AND  MINERALS. 
Outline  :  Where  found ;  how  mined  or  quarried ;  qualities ;  uses. 

1.  Iron.  4.  Copper.  7.  Marble. 

2.  Gold.  5.  Lead.  '     8.  Coal. 

3.  Silver.        ^  6.  Quicksilver.  0.  Granite. 

TREES. 
Outline:  Where  found;  size;  height;  foliage;  varieties;  qualities;  uses. 

1.  The  maple.  4.  The  birch.  7.  The  pine. 

2.  The  elm.  5.  The  chestnut.  8.  The  hickory. 

3.  The  beech.  6.  The  oak.  9.  The  apple. 

MANUFACTURED  ARTICLES. ' 
Write  short  descriptions  of  the  process  of  making  such  of  the 
following  articles  as  are  manufactured  in  or  near  the  place  where 
you  reside : 

1.  Shoes.  3.  Brick.  5.  Cotton  cloth. 

2.  Boots.  4.  Horseshoes.  G.  Woollens. 


SECTION  III. 
SUBDIVISION  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


XXXIIL— THE  NOUN :  Proper, 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  nouns  that  are  the 
names  of  particular  persons,  places,  or  things. 

Model:  "Walter  visited  New  York,  and  saw  the  Central  Park  and  the 
Hudson  River." 

"  Walter  "  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person ;  *'  New  York  "  is  the 
name  of  a  particular  place ;  ''  Central  Park  "  is  the  name  of  a  particu- 
lar object ;  "  Hudson  River  "  is  the  name  of  a  particular  river. 

Examples.  —  1.  Thomas  lent  his  knife  to  John.  2.  Mary  gave 
Emma  a  rose.  3.  Socrates  died  like  a  philosopher.  4  Watt  and 
Fulton  were  inventors.  5.  New  Orleans  is  in  Louisiana.  6.  Texas  is 
the  largest  state.  7.  China  is  the  most  populous  country  in  the  world. 
8.  Jerusalem,  my  happy  home !  9.  Carlo  is  a  good  dog.  10.  The 
Rhine  is  not  so  large  a  river  as  the  Mississippi.  11.  The  Alps  are  the 
highest  mountains  in  Europe.  12.  We  shall  have  a  holiday  on  Thurs- 
day because  it  is  the  Fourth  of  July. 

Explanation. — The  name  of  a  particular  person,  place,  or  thing 
is  an  individual  or  special  name.  It  does  not  belong  to  the  person, 
place,  or  thing  by  nature,  but  is  given  to  the  person,  place,  or  thing 
to  distinguish  that  one  from  others  of  the  same  kind.   , 

In  grammar  such  names  are  called  proper  nouns. 


THE    NOUN.  61 

Definition. — A  proper  noun  is  a  special  or  individual  name. 

Capitals. — Rule  :  A  proper  noun  should  always  begin  with 
a  capital  letter. 

KOTE. — A  name  made  up  of  two  or  more  words  is  to  be  taken  as 
one  proper  noun :  thus,  New  Orleans,  Fourth  of  July,  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Rocky  Mountains,  Peter  the  Great,  Washington  County,  etc. 


XXXIV.— THE  NOUN:  Common. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  nouns  which  are  the 
names  of  all  objects  of  the  same  class  or  kind. 

Model  :  "  The  cat  is  a  domestic  animal."  ' 

"Cat"  is  a  name  denoting  every  individual  of  the  cdX-lcind ;  "ani- 
mal "  is  a  name  applied  to  all  living  creatures. 

Examples.— 1.  Tlie  bud  shoots  forth.  2.  The  oak  is  one  of  the 
largest  trees  in  the  forest.  3.  Ships  spread  their  sails.  4,  Cows  eat 
grass  and  give  us  milk.  5.  Birds  build  nests.  6.  The  door  of  the 
schoolroom  was  open.  7.  A  lady  stood  before  the  window.  8.  The 
clouds  are  drifting  across  the  sky.  9.  Who  threw  this  stone  over  the 
wall  ?  10.  The  water  in  the  old  well  is  clear.  11.  Great  changes  have 
taken  place.     12.  Sail  on,  proud  ship ! 

Explanation. — Many  names  are  not  individual  or  special  names, 
but  names  of  every  one  of  a  class  or  kind.  Thus  hoy  is  not  a  name 
denoting  only  a  particular  one :  it  belongs  to  all  boys  in  common, 
and  is  a  general  name,  or  class  name,  which  denotes  every  individual 
belonging  to  the  boy-kind. 

Such  names  arc  called  common  nouns, 

Definition.^-A  common  noun  is  a  general  or  class  name. 

NOTE. — A  collective  noun  is  a  noun  denoting  a  collection  of  in- 
dividuals considered  as  forming  one  whole  or  body :  thus,  amiy^  fleet, 
jury,  committee,  etc. 


62  SUBDIVISION    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC. 


XXXV.—THE  NOUN:  Abstract. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  nouns  which  are  the 
names  of  qualities  or  actions. 

Model:  *'Wisdomis  tobesoughtfor;  Running  is  good  exercise.'' 

"Wisdom"  is  the  name  of  a  quality;  "running"  is  the  name  of  an 
action. 

Examples. — 1.  The  whiteness  of  this  paper  is  remarkable.  2.  Wash- 
ington's goodness  was  known  by  all.  3.  His  firmness,  sagacity,  and 
prudence  saved  the  country.  4.  Writing  is  useful.  5.  Her  beauty 
made  me  glad.  6.  Walking  is  healthful.  7.  Always  speak  the  truth. 
8.  We  should  observe  moderation  in  all  things.  9.  Alas !  for  the  rarity 
of  Christian  charity  !  10.  Bathing,  diving,  swimming,  riding,  dancing, 
singing,  arc  names  of  actions. 

Explanation. — Some  nouns  are  the  names,  not  of  things,  but  of 
qualities  belonging  to  a  number  of  things.  These  qualities  we  can- 
not perceive  by  the  senses,  but  we  can  think  of  them  and  speak 
about  them.  Thus  many  things  arc  sweety  and,  thinking  about  this 
quality  apart  from  the  things  themselves,  we  name  it  sweetness. 

These  names  of  qualities  are  called  abstract  nouns,  because  we 
consider  the  quality  apart  from  the  things  themselves. 

Names  of  actions  are  a  kind  of  abstract  noun. 

Definition. — An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  quality  or 
action. 

NOTE. — Most  abstract  nouns  of  quality  are  formed  from  adjectives  : 
thus — 

ADJECTIVES.  ABSTRACT  N0U^'8. 

good  goodness 

pure  purity 

temperate  temperance 

just  justice 

splendid  splendor 

deep  depth 


REVIEW    OF    NOUNS.  63 

XXXVI.— REVIEW  OF  NOUNS. 

There  are  three  subdivisions  of  nouns : 

I.  Proper.    II.  Common.    III.  Abstract. 

I.  A  proper  noun  is  a  special  or  indlmdiial  name. 
II.  A  common  noun  is  a  general  or  class  name. 
III.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  quality  or  action,  ^ 


EXERCISE    27. 
a. 

In  the  following  sentences  tell  the  class  to  which  each  noun 
belongs. 

Model  :  "  Napoleon  praised  the  bravery  of  his  soldiers.'' 

Napoleon is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  a  special  or  individual  name. 

braTery is  an  abstract  noun,  because  it  is  the  name  of  a  quality. 

soldiers is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  a  class  name. 

1.  Napoleon  praised  the  bravery  of  his  soldiers. 

2.  Our  teacher  commended  the  neatness  of  our  writing. 

3.  Balboa  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

4.  Amsterdam,  like  Stockholm  and  Venice,  is  built  on  wooden 

piles  driven  to  a  great  depth  into  the  ground. 

5.  My  pony  is  named  Peggy. 

G.  The  White  Mountains  are  visited  by  many  tourists. 

7.  Do  you  swear  to  tell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 

the  trutli  ? 

8.  Alas  I  poor  Yorick  I  I  knew  him,  Horatio. 

9.  A  photograph  is  a  picture  made  by  the  light  of  the  sun. 

10.  Alexander  had  a  horse  named  Buce^^us. ; 

11.  Many  rivers  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  flow  into  the  Pacific 

Ocean. 

12.  Greece,  though  a  famous  country,  is  only  about  one  half  the  size 

of  New  York  State. 

13.  Hippopotamuses,  rhinoceroses,  and  gnus  arc  found  in  Africa. 


G4  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

14.  Scaling  mountain-peaks  is  a  favorite  summer  amusement. 

15.  Warren  was  noted  for  the  sweetness  of  his  disposition. 

16.  Knowledge  is  power,  and  the  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword. 

17.  From  my  study  I  see  in  the  lamplight, 
Descending  the  broad  hall-stair, 
Grave  Alice,  and  laughing  Allegra, 
And  Edith  with  golden  hair. 

Do  you  think,  O  blue-eyed  banditti, 
Because  you  have  scaled  the  wall. 

Such  an  old  moustache  as  I  am 
Is  not  a  match  for  you  all  ? 

b. 

Rule  slates  or  paper,  and  write  the  nouns  in  the  previous  ex- 
ercise accordincy  to  this  model : 


PBOPER. 

COMiMON. 

ACSTKACT. 

Napoleon 

soldiers 
teacher 

bravery 
neatness 
writing 

XXXYII.-THE  NOUN:  Constructive  Exercises. 

a« 

Use  a  common  noun  (with  a  or  an)  as  predicate  nominative. 
Model  :  *'  Columbus  was  a  discoverer^ 


1.  Columbus  was 5.  Daniel  Webster  was  . 

2.  Shakspeare  was C.  Julius  Caesar  was 

3.  Robert  Fulton  was 7.  Dickens  was 

4.  Florence  Nightingale  was 8.  Mrs.  Hemans  was  .... 


Write  a  sentence  upon  each  of  the  following  subjects  by  stat- 
ing from  what  country  each  of  the  articles  named  is  obtained. 


THE    PRONOUN.  05 

Draw  one  lino  under  each  common  noun  and  two  lines  under 
each  proper  noun. 

1.  Tea.  \4;  Gutta-percb  a.      ■:7.  Raisins.        10.  Bananas. 

2.  Coffee.     -  5.  Ostrich  plumes.     8.  Dates.  11.  Indigo. 

^<^  3.  Ivory.         0.  Olive-oil.  9.  Wine.  12.  Pineapples. 

'  ^  c. 

Write,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  addressed  to  your  teacher,  a  short 
account  of  yourself  by  answering  the  following  questions: 

Where  do  you  reside  ?    [Name  of  city  (or  town),  county,  and  state.] 
What  is  your  name  ?     [Giving  real  name.]     What  is  your  age  ? 

Model. 


Q//u'nct6.        Q4ly  7ia7n6  €6   &77itm  G^t'm/uf,' anc/  (2/ 

XXXVIII.— THE  PRONOUN:  Personal. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  words  that  are  used  for 
the  name  of  the  pei'son  speaking  or  spoken  to,  or  that  stand  for  nouns, 

JVroDEL:  1.  "I  am  glad  that  you  have  come.'*  2.  *' Frank  likes  his  dog 
and  it  likes  him." 

The  word  "  I "  is  used  for  the  name  of  the  person  speaking;  the  word 
"you"  is  used  for  the  name  of  the  person  spoken  to;  the  word  *'it" 
stands  for  the  noun  "  dog ; "  the  word  "  him  "  stands  for  the  7ioim 
''  Frank." 


(j6  subdivision    of   the    parts    of    speech.  [sec.  III. 

Examples. — 1.  I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him.     2.  I  hope, 
madam,  you  find  yourself  better  this  morning.     3.  John  spoke  to  Ann : 
he  says  she  will  come  when  she  has  found  the  book  he  wants.    4.  The 
boy  saw  the  mouse  as  it  ran  across  the  floor.     5.  Have  you  had  your 
breakfast  ?     6.  The  children  are  coming  home  from  school,  and  they 
look  in  at  the  open  door.     7.  I  help  you,  but  you  do  not  help  me.     8. 
Charles  went  to  Paris  with  his  mother,  and  he  came  back  without  her. 
9.  The  mountain  was  higher  than  we  thought  it  to  be. 
10.  I  come  to  S23eak  to  you  of  what  he  wish'd — 
Enoch,  your  husband :  I  have  ever  said 
Tou  chose  the  best  among  us— a  strong  man ; 
For  where  he  fixed  his  heart  he  set  his  hand 
To  do  the  thing  he  willed,  and  bore  it  through. 

Explanation. — The  pronoun  used  by  a  speaker  to  denote  himself 
is  called,  in  grammar,  the  pronoun  of  the  Ji7'st  person.  It  is  used 
because  it  would  be  very  awkward  for  one  to  speak  his  own  name 
every  time  he  had  to  make  a  statement  about  himself. 

The  pronoun  which  we  use  for  the  name  of  the  person  we  are 
addressing  is  called  the  pronoun  of  the  second  person.  It  is  used 
because  it  would  be  very  tedious  to  call  persons  by  their  proper 
name  every  time  we  address  them.  Besides,  it  often  happens  that 
we  do  not  know  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  we  are  speaking. 

Three  pronouns — he,  she,  and  it — are  used  instead  of  nouns  which 
we  have  already  used :  by  so  doing  we  avoid  the  unpleasant  effect 
of  repeating  the  same  word.  These  are  called  pronouns  of  the 
third  person. 

These  pronouns,  since  they  have  special  forms  to  denote  the 
speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
are  called  personal  pronouns. 

Definition. — A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  shows  by  its  form 
whether  it  is  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 


THE    PRONOUN.  67 

NOTE. — The  principal  pronouns  are : 

I denoting  the  speaker. 

We denoting  the  speaker  along  with  others. 

You denoting  one  or  more  persons  spoken  to. 

He    ^ 

She  >  ...denoting  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

It      ) 

They denoting  the  persons  or  things  spoken  of. 

The  personal  pronoun  "I"  should  alwaj^s  be  written  as  a  cap- 
ital letter. 


XXXIX.— THE  PROXOUN:  Relative. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  those  pronouns  that  relate 
to  a  word  (noun  or  pronoun)  going  before. 

Model:  *'The  man  who  sold  me  the  horse  that  was  blind  will  receive 
the  reward  which  he  merits." 

The  pronoun  "who"  relates  to  the  noun  "man;"  the  pronoun 
"that"  relates  to  the  noun  "horse;"  the  pronoun  "which"  relates  to 
the  noun  "  reward." 

Examples. — 1.  This  is  the  lady  who  called  on  you.  2.  I  have  lost 
the  book  which  I  bought.  3.  London,  which  is  situated  on  the  Thames, 
is  the  capital  of  Great  Britain.  4.  I  have  seen  the  largest  lion  that  was 
ever  brought  to  this  country.  5.  I  know  what  you  wish.  6.  Are 
those  the  dogs  which  your  father  had  with  him  ?  7.  Those  who  love 
mercy  shall  receive  mercy.  8.  I  who  speak  to  you  am  the  man  that 
did  the  deed.  9.  You  who  are  so  boastful  should  give  some  evidence 
of  your  ability.  10.  The  boy  and  the  dog  that  you  saw  passed  on. 
11. 1  do  not  know  which  of  you  to  invite.  12.  It  is  the  mind  that 
makes  the  body  rich.  13.  The  Indians  lived  in  wigwams  which  they 
made  of  bark  or  the  skins  of  animals.  14.  Solomon  was  the  wisest 
man  that  ever  lived. 

15.  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  wliich  far 

Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  or  of  Ind, 

Satan  exalted  sat. 


68  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

Explanation. — Some  pronouns  not  only  stand  for  nouns,  but  also 
connect  statements.  Thus,  in  the  sentence  "We  love  people  who 
love  us,"  the  pronoun  "  who  "  stands  for  the  noun  "  people,"  and  at 
the  same  time  connects  the  statements  "  we  love  people  "  and  "  love 
us." 

Since  these  pronouns  carry  our  mind  back  to  a  noun  going  be- 
fore, they  are  called  relative  pronouns ;  and  the  noun  to  which  they 
refer  is  called  the  antecedent.     {Antecedent  means  going  before.) 

[  Definition  I. — A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  refers  to  a  pre- 
ceding noun  or  pronoun  and  connects  two  statements  in  a  sentence. 

^Definition  II.  —  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  is  the  noun  or 
pronoun  represented  by  the  relative. 

(  NOTE. — The  relative  pronouns  are :  wJiOj  wliich^  wJiat^  that. 


XL.— THE  PRONOUJf:  Interrogative. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  the  pronouns  which  are  used 
in  asking  questions : 

Model  :  "  Who  did  it ?''    "  Which  did  you  see  ?"    ''  What  shall  I  say?'* 

The  words  "  who,"  ^'  which,"  and  "  what "  arc  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions. 

Examples. — 1.  Who  comes  here?  2.  Who  killed  the  deer?  3. 
Which  of  you  did  that  ?  4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  inter- 
rogative ?  5.  To  whom  did  you  offer  the  present  ?  C.  AVhat's  this  ? 
7.  Which  of  the  two  do  you  mean  ?  8.  Who  comes  here  ?  9.  What 
have  you  got  to  say  ? 

/  Definition. — An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used  in 
asking  a  question.    They  are  who,  which,  and  what. 


REVIEW    OF   PRONOUNS. 


69 


XLI.— EEYIEW  OF  PRONOUIVS. 

There  are  three  subdivisions  of  pronouns : 

I.  Personal.        II.  Relative.        III.  Interrogative. 

I.  A  pei'sonal  pronoun  is  one  that  shows  by  its  form  whether  it  is 
of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person. 

II.  A  relative  i^ronoun  is  one  that  refers  to  a  preceding  noun  or 
pronoun  and  connects  two  statements  in  a  sentence. 

III.  An  inten'Ogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used  in  asking  a  ques- 
tion.    They  are  iclio^  wJiicJi^  and  icJiat 


EXERCISE    28. 
a. 

In  the  following  sentences  tell  the  class  to  which  each  2^^'onoim 
belongs : 

1.  I  have  just  received  the  picture  which  you  sent  me.  2.  Who 
has  been  in  this  room  ?  3.  The  man  wdio  was  here  yesterday. 
4.  What  shall  I  say  to  him,  and  what  shall  I  do  ?  5.  Fulton, 
who  built  the  first  steamboat,  was  an  American.  6.  This  is  the 
man  of  whom  you  spoke.  7.  When  will  they  make  us  a  visit  ? 
8.  Who  shouts  treason  ?  Let  him  die.  9.  Thou  hast  all  seasons 
for  thine  own,  O  Death  !  10.  We  have  just  recited  a  geography 
lesson.  11.  He  says  that  she  is  a  better  scholar  than  you. 
12.  What  sought  they  thus  afar?  13.  They  sought  a  faith's 
pure  shrine. 

14.  Dear  little  blossoms  down  under  the  snow, 
You  must  be  weary  of  winter,  I  know. 

b. 

Eule  slates  or  paper,  and  write  the  pronouns  in  the  previous  ex- 
ercise accordino*  to  this  model. 


PEKSONAL. 

KEI.ATIVK. 

INTEUnOGATIVE. 

I 

you 
me   - 

which 

who  ? 

70  SUBDIVISION    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

C. 

Supply  suitable  pronouns^  and  tell  the  class  to  which  each  be- 
longs. 

1.  John  says knows  the  boy stole  the  apple. 

2.  Do remember  the  place  where met,  long,  long  ago? 

3.  Tell  me of  the  books want,  and shall  have  ...... 

4 was  the  first  president  of  the  United  States  ? 

5 and could  not  learn w^as  there. 

6.  James  has  lost  the  knife his  father  gave 

7.  JeiTisalem  was  the  city  to the  Crusaders  bent  their  course. 

8.  The  scholar studied  most  improved  the  most. 

9.  This  is  the  house Jack  built. 

10 hope   and   will   soon  be   able  to  write   good 

English. 


XLII.— THE   ADJECTIVE  :  QuaUfying. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  adjectives  that  de- 
note some  quality/  of  the  thing  named  by  the  noun  which  they 

modify. 

Model  ;  "  Good  shepherds  care  for  tender  lambs.'* 

The  adjective  "good"  expresses  a  quality  oi  sheplierds ;  the  adjec- 
tive "tender"  expresses  a  quality  oflamhs. 

Examples. — 1.  Good  shepherds  care  for  tender  lambs.  2.  An  hon- 
est man  is  the  noblest  w^ork  of  God.  3.  Friday  w^as  a  comely,  hand- 
some fellow,  with  straight,  strong  limbs.  4.  John  gave  Jam.es  ten  large 
apples.  5.  Clever  girls  can  learn  difficult  lessons.  6.  The  old  oaken 
bucket  hangs  in  the  well.  7.  What  a  beautiful  flower  you  have  1 
8.  The  new  map  has  come.  9.  After  a  w^eary  walk  w^e  reached  a  small 
village.  10.  The  loftiest  mountains  are  found  in  Asia.  11.  The  sun, 
the  great  fountain  of  light,  showered  down  his  rays. 

12.  Some  mossy  bank  my  couch  must  be, 
Some  rustling  oak  my  canopy. 


THE    ADJECTIVE.  71 

Definition.  —  A  qualifying  acyectire   is  one   that  denotes  a 
quality.  

NOTES. 
I.  Adjectives  show  qualities  of  clifFerent  kinds :  as- 


Color 
Size. 


(  A  white  horse.    A  black  dog.    A  red  book. 

(  A  la7'ge  house.    A  s)nall  cottage.    A  broad  road. 


A  narrow  path.    A  low  chimney.    A  tall  chimney. 
A  soft  bed.    A  pleasant  bed.    A  hard  rock.    Soft  sand. 
Kind  . .  -j  A  fierce  tiger.    A  gentle  lamb.    Fine  weather. 
A  siceet  apple.    A  strotig  hand.    A  brave  heart. 

II.  Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  proper  nouns,  and  hence  are 
called  proper  adjectives :  thus — 


lOPKU  NOUKS. 

PROPER  ADJECTIVES. 

China, 

Chinese. 

Italy, 

Italian. 

America, 

American. 

Spain, 

Spanish. 

Scotland, 

Scotch  (or  Scottish). 

Turkey, 

Turkish. 

Capitals. —EuLE ;  Proper  adjectives  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 


XLIIL— THE   ADJECTIVE :  Limiting. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  the  adjectives  that  merely 
2:)oint  out  the  thing  named,  or  denote  the  number  or  quantity  of 
it.     Also  select  the  articles. 

Model  :  "  This  book  has  belonged  to  my  sister  for  four  years." 

The  word  "  this  "  is  used  to  point  out  which  book ;  the  word  "  four  " 
is  used  to  denote  hoio  many  years. 

Examples. — 1.  This  book  has  belonged  to  my  sister  for  four  years. 
2.  That  woman  lives  in  this  cottage.     3.  A  nightingale  sang  some 


72 


SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 


sweet  notes.     4.  Your  six  pigeons  are  dead.    5.  On  the  second  day 
after  our  arrival  fifty  persons  came  to  visit  us.    6.  Whose  book  is  this  ? 
7.  What  a  beautiful  flower  you  have !     8.  Our  brave  soldiers  faced 
many  dangers.      9.  Two  tall  elm -trees  shade  the  old  brown  house. 
10.  There  are  seven  days  in  a  week.     11.  Most  boys  enjoy  skating. 
12.  Sir  Ralph  the  Rover  tore  his  hair, 
And  cursed  himself  in  his  despair ; 
But  the  waves  rush  in  on  every  side, 
And  the  vessel  sinks  beneath  the  tide. 

Definition. — A  limiting  adljective  is  one  that  merely  defines  or 
restriets  the  meaning  of  a  noun. 


NOTES. 

I.  Some  limiting  adjectives  serve  merely  to  2^oint  out  the  thing 
named:  as — 

this  horse  (the  nearer  one), 
that  horse  (the /ar^^^?' one). 

II.  Some  limiting  adjectives  show  the  quantity  of  a  thing :  as — 
1.  Fixed,  One  ox.     Two  oxen.     Three  cows. 

'T\\Q  first  fox.    The  tMrd  horse,    l^ha  fourth 

dog. 
Each    individual.     Either    man.     Neither 
Numher,  -  woman. 

3.  Uncertain.      Soine  persons.     Other  persons. 
All  children.     Many  childvipn. 
Several  women.     Few   girls.     Most  boys. 
No  persons.     Eva^y  traveller. 


Mass  or 
Bulk 


[  Some  tea.    Much  sugar.    Little  milk.    Any  bread. 


III.  Articles. — A  (or  an)  is  called  the  indefinite  article;  the,  the 
definite  article. 

An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  vowel  sounds;  a  before 


REVIEW    OF    ADJECTIVES. 


73 


words  beginning  with  consonant  sounds :  as,  a  man ;  a  house ;  a  year ; 
a  wonder;  a  use; — an  art;  an  end;  an  heir;  an  urn. 

Obs. — a,  e,  i,  0,  M  are  the  vowels.  TFand  y  are  consonants  when  they  pre- 
cede a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable ;  otherwise,  vowels. 

IV.  Pronominal  Adjectives.  —  Some  limiting  adjectives  may  by 
tliemselves  represent  a  noun.  These  are  called  pronominal  adjectives: 
tlius — 


LIMITING. 


Look  on  this  picture. 
Both  boys  are  studious. 
Have  you  seen  any  geese  ? 
Some  girls  are  lazy. 


rRONOMINAL. 

Look  on  thk. 
Both  are  studious; 
Not  any. 
Some  are  industrious. 


XLIV.— RETIEW  OF  ADJECTITES. 

There  arc  two  general  subdivisions  of  adjectives : 

I.  Qualifying.  II.  Limiting. 

I.  A  qualifying"  adjective  is  one  that  denotes  a  quality. 

II.  A  limiting'  adjective  is  one  that  merely  defines  or  restricts  the 
meaning  of  a  noun. 

The  articles,  the  and  a  or  «;?,  are  limiting  adjectives. 


EXERCISE    29. 


Rule  slates  or  paper  as  below,  and  write  the  different  classes  of 
adjectives  in  the  following  piece. 


QUALIFYING. 

LIMITING. 

ARTICLES. 

little 
green  - 

this 

a 

the 

D 


74  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

SILK. 

We  get  silk  from  a  caterpillar  called  the  silk-worm.  This  little 
creature  is  green  in  color,  and  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  mulberrj^- 
tree.  It  is  hatched  from  an  egg  about  the  size  of  a  mustard- 
seed,  and  changes  its  skin  four  times  before  it  reaches  its  full 
size.  When  full  grown  it  leaves  off  eating,  and  covers  itself 
over  with  a  pretty  silken  case,  inside  of  which  the  little  si^inner 
goes  to  sleep  for  some  time.  When  its  sleep  is  over,  it  makes  a 
hole  in  its  case,  and  comes  out  in  the  shape  of  a  small  butterfl}^, 
which  lays  a  number  of  eggs  and  then  dies.  It  is  from  the  case 
or  ball  spun  by  the  silk-worm  that  all  our  silk  is  made.  The 
balls,  or  cocoons,  as  they  are  called,  are  thrown  into  warm  water, 
to  loosen  the  gum  with  wdiich  the  silk- worm  glues  the  threads 
together.  Then  four  or  five  of  the  threads  are  fastened  to  a  reel 
and  wound.  In  this  state  it  is  called  raw  silk;  and  it  is  next 
sent  ta  the  silk-mill,  to  be  prepared  for  the  weaver.  The  best 
silk  comes  from  China,  where  silk-worms  were  reared  and  silk 
was  woven  into  cloth  hundreds  of  years  ago. 


XL  v.— THE  ADJECTIVE:  Constructive  Exercises, 
a. 

Write  sentences  introducing  the  adjective  forms  of  the  following 
proper  nouns.     J^"  Underline  the  adjectives. 

Model  :  "  Switzerland. — Swiss  scenery  is  celebrated  for  its  beauty.'* 

1.  Switzerland.     3.  Holland.        5.  Japan.  ^         7.  Paris. 

2.  Sweden.  4.  Peru.  6.  Scotland.      8.  Turkey. 

b. 

Supply  suitable  adjectives, 

1.  Caesar  w\as  a general. 

2.  There  are scholars  in  my  class. 

3 dog  was  barking  at horse. 

4 house  on  the  hill  is  mine. 


THE    VERB.  75 

c. 

Write  on  paper  or  slates  ten  sentences,  each  sentence  containing 
one  of  the  following  nouns  with  an  adjective  joined  to  it : 

1.  orange.     3.  bonnet.      5.  farm.  7.  mountain.     9.  thread. 

2.  coat.         4.  shawl.        6.  monkeys.     8.  wagon.        10.  scissors. 

d. 

Write  in  columns,  on  slate  or  blackboard,  under  each  heading, 
nine  more  adjectives^  denoting — 

Color.  I  Kind.  I  Size, 

brown.  |  sweet.  |  large. 

e. 

Rewrite  the  sentences,  and  change  the  meaning  by  putting  in 
other  adjectives. 

Model  :  "A  little  red  cross  dog  attacked  a  gay  young  prancing  horse." 

1.  A  large  black  fierce  dog  attacked  a  poor  old  lame  horse. 

2.  The  damask  roses  perfume  the  bahny  morning  air. 

3.  The  pretty  little  child  fondles  the  small  black  kitten. 

^  4.  Some  idle  careless  scholars  waste  many  precious  hours. 
5.  Two  tall  elm-trees  shade  the  old  brown  house. 


ob\ 


XLVI.— THE  VERB  2  Transitive  and  Intransitive. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  all  those  verbs  which  take  an 
hjectj  and  in  another  column  those  which  do  not  take  an  object  : 


Examples. — 1.  The  pony  eats  hay.  2.  The  house  fell.  3.  The  cow 
gives  milk.  4.  John  loves  his  sister.  5.  The  bird  flew  away.  6. 
Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall.  7.  The  teacher  instructs  us.  8.  Who 
calls  me?  9.  Watch  him.  10.  Coal  burns.  11.  This  poor  man  dwells 
in  a  little  hut;  yet  he  loves  his  home.  12.  The  sisters  danced  the 
polka.     13.  I  felt  so  happy  that  I  almost  danced  for  joy.     14.  Old  Joe 


76 


SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 


tells  funny  stories.      15.  His  illness  lasted  long.      16.  A  soft  answer 
turneth  away  wrath. 

Definition  I. — A  transitive  verb  is  one  that  denotes  an  action   I 
terminating  on  some  object. 

Transitive  means  passing  over^  for  th(i  action  denoted  by  the  verb  is  thought 
of  as  passing  over  to  tlie  object. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  either  a  noun  (or  pronoun)  or  some  word 
or  words  iiaving  the  use  of  a  noun. 

Definition  II. — An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  denotes  (1)  a. 
state  or  condition,  or  (2)  an  action  not  terminating  on  an  object.    \ 

Intransitive  means  not  passing  over  to  an  object,  for  the  action  ends  with  the 
person  (or  thing)  spoken  of  as  doing  it. 


NOTES. 

I.  The  same  verb  may  be  cither  transitive  or  intransitive,  according 
to  its  use.     Thus — 

1.  Farmers  mow  (intrans.).     Farmers  mow  gr'ass  (trans.). 

2.  Ice  melts  (intrans.).     Heat  melts  ice  (trans.). 

3.  Fire  Uirns  (intrans.).     Fire  hums  wood  (trans.). 

II.  Most  intransitive  verbs  require  no  words  to  complete  their  sense ; 
but  a  few  intransitive  verbs  take  a  complement^  or  completing  part  (see 
page  53).  Such  verbs  are  sometimes  called  neuter^  copula^  or  apposition 
verbs.  They  are,  however,  simply  intransitive  verhs  of  incompjlete  j^redl- 
cation. 


EXERCISE    30. 
a. 

Rule  slates  or  paper  as  below,  and  write  the  verbs. 


grows 
invented 

verb  intrans. 
verb  trans. 

THE    ADVERB.  '  77 

1.  The  india-rubber  tree  grows  in  Brazil.     2.  Wliitney  invented 
the  cotton-gin.     3.  The  farmer  sent  his  servant.     4.  The  moon 
moves  round  the  earth.     5.  Fulton  constructed  the  first  steam- 
boat.    6.  Brj^ant  wrote   Thanatcypsis.     7.  The   patriot's  heart 
bled.     8.  Is  he  coming  home ?     9.  Speak,  marble  lips! 
10.  God  moves  in  a  mysterious  wa}^, 
His  wonders  to  perform : 
He  plants  his  footsteps  in  the  sea, 
And  rides  upon  the  storm. 

b. 

Write  twelve  sentences  with  verbs  which  require  an  object,  and 
twelve  with  verbs  which  do  not  require  an  object. 


XLVH.— THE  ADVERB:  Simple  and  Conjunctive. 

Select  from  the  following  examples  the  adverbs  that  simply 
modify  verbs  and  distinguish  them  from  those  that  connect  state- 
ments in  a  sentence. 

Model  :  "  You  live  here."    "  I  know  where  you  live." 

"  Here  "  is  an  adverb,  and  merely  modifies  the  verb  "  live."  "  Where '' 
is  an  adverb,  and  connects  the  two  statements  "  I  know  "  and  "  you 
live." 

Examples. — 1.  You  live  here.  2. 1  know  where  you  live.  3.  James 
studies  diligently.  4.  I  have  heard  how  he  studies.  5.  Slowly,  sadly 
we  laid  him  down.  6.  The  wind  blew  terribly.  7.  I  will  go  when  I 
am  invited.  8.  We  must  study  while  w^e  are  young.  9.  A  very  pretty 
bird  daintily  picked  up  the  crumbs.  10.  Do  you  know  why  it  is  cold 
in  northern  countries?  11.  Go  where  glory  waits  thee.  12.  Go 
yonder. 

Explanation.  —  Some  adverbs  serve  only  to  modify  the  words 
with  which  they  are  joined.     These  are  called  simple  adverbs. 

A  few  adverbs  are  used  to  connect  statements  in  a  sentence. 
These  are  called  conjunctive  (that  is,  con-joining)  adverbs. 


78  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

Definition  I. — A  simple  adverb  is  one  that  merely  modifies 
the  word  with  which  it  is  used. 

Definition  II. — A  conjunctive  (or  relative)  adverb  is  one  that 
not  only  modifies  the  word  with  which  it  is  used,  but  connects 
two  statements  in  a  sentence. 


KOTES. 


I.  The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  are :  when,  where,  whence, 
why,  how. 

II.  When  the  conjunctive  adverbs  are  used  to  introduce  a  question, 
they  are  called  interrogative  adverbs. 

III.  The  words  yes  and  no  are  generally  classed  with  adverbs ;  but 
they  do  not  modify  any  word.  They  give  answers,  or  responses,  to 
questions ;  and  hence  are  sometimes  called  responsives. 


EXERCISE    31. 
a. 

Eulc  slates  or  paper  as  below,  and  classify  the  adverbs  in  this 


BIMPLK. 

CONJUNCTIVE. 

cheerfully 

when 

1.  I  will  cheerfully  accompany  you  Vvlien  you  are  ready. 

2.  Thomas  rose  early  in  the  morning,  and  soon  finished  his  work. 

3.  He  would  not  tell  me  where  he  had  put  the  letter. 

4.  Will  you  show  me  how  to  perform  this  example  ? 

5.  Does  she  write  neatly  ?     No ;  quite  clumsily. 

6.  Did  you  call  once  or  twice  ? 

7.  Nero  was  exceedingly  cruel. 

8.  He  refused  to  tell  his  father  why  he  ran  away. 

9.  That  boy  goes  where  he  pleases  and  when  he  pleases. 


THE    CONJUNCTION. 


79 


10.  When  the  dry  season  arrives,  the  reptiles  bury  themselves  in 
the  mud,  where  they  remain  till  the  tropical  rains  fall  again. 

b. 

Use  a   corresponding   adverb  for   each   adjective^  making   such 
changes  in  words  as  are  necessary :  thus — 


1.  He  is  a  slow  runner. 

2.  The  child's  sleep  was  soft. 

He  runs  slowly. 

The  child  slept  softly. 

1.  He  is  a  swift  writer. 

2.  Her  singing  was  sweet. 

3.  Their  failure  was  complete. 

4.  Your  labors  were  successful. 

5.  John  had  a  Jieavi/  fall. 

6.  My  suspicions  were  co7Tect. 

7.  We  took  a  sJy  peep. 

8.  I  gave  him  a  steady  look. 

9.  The  wJiole  blame  was  his. 
10.  He  showed  true  sorrow. 


He  writes 

She  sang 

They  failed 

You  labored 

John  fell 

I  suspected 

We  peeped 

I  looked at  him. 

He  was to  blame. 

He  was sorry. 


XLVHI.— THE  CONJUNCTION:  Co-ordinate  and  Subordinate. 

Select  the  sentences  the  parts  of  which  are  independent — that  is, 
those  containing  and,  or,  hut,  therefore — and  distinguish  them  from 
the  sentences  containing  a  dependent  statement — that  is,  a  state- 
ment introduced  by  if  though,  unless,  that,  ' 

Examples. — 1.  I  will  go  and  you  will  come.  2.  I  will  go  if  you 
will  come.  3.  I  will  go,  but  you  will  remain.  4.  Fools  build  houses, 
and  wise  men  live  in  them.  5.  You  w^ill  not  become  learned  unless 
you  study.  6.  Stay  a  while,  that  we  may  enjoy  ourselves.  7.  Kapo- 
leon  conquered  nearly  all  of  Europe,  but  he  died  a  prisoner  at  St. 
Helena.  8.  We  cannot  solve  the  riddle  unless  we  have  the  key. 
9.  James  or  John  is  to  blame.  10.  Though  He  was  rich,  yet  for  our 
sakes  He  became  poor. 


80  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  III. 

Explanation. — The  sentence  "  I  will  go  and  you  will  come " 
consists  of  two  statements  —  statements  of  separate  independent 
facts. 

The  sentence  "  I  will  go,  if  you  will  come,"  consists  of  two  state- 
ments also ;  but  the  one  is  made  dependent  on  the  other :  I  will  go, 
provided  you  come  (meaning,  if  you  do  not  come,  I  will  not  go). 

A  conjunction  which  connects  two  independent  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence is  called  a  co-oi^dlnate  conjunction — that  is,  a  conjunction  join- 
ing two  parts  of  the  same  order ^  or  rank  A  conjunction  which 
joins  a  dependent  part  of  a  sentence  to  the  principal  part  is  called 
a  subordinate  conjunction — that  is,  a  conjunction  joining  a  part  of 
a  lower  rank  or  order  to  another  part. 

Definition  I. — A  co-ordinate  conjunction  is  one  tliat  connects    / 
words,  plirases,  or  propositions  liaving  tlie  same  rank.  ^ 

Definition  IL— A  subordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  connects 
a  dependent  witli  a  principal  proposition. 

NOTE.— The  principal  conjunctions  are — 

CO-OKDINATK.  SUBOEDINATE. 

and  but  if  lest 

either — or  though  because 

neither— nor  unless  for 

therefore        hence  that  since 


EXERCISE   32. 

Supply  conjunctions,  and  tell  whether  co-ordinate  or  siihordinate. 

1.  The  clouds  soon  passed  away, sunshine  succeeded. 

2.  The  wicked  may  prosper  for  a  time, they  will  receive  retri- 

bution in  the  end. 

3.  Contentment  is  better riches. 

4.  He  was  gentle  in  manner, resolute  in  action. 

5.  We  shall  improve w^e  study. 

6.  Life  is  so  uncertain  w^e  should  always  be  prepared  for 

deatli. 


REVIEW    EXERCISE. 


81 


7.  I  told  you he  would  fail. 

8 you  say  so,  I  cannot  believe  it. 

9.  You  will  succeed you  persevere. 

10.  We  study we  wish  to  learn. 

11.  I  shall  not  tell  you, you  promise  to  keep  the  secret. 

12.  I  think Henry  is  older Paul, he  is  not  so  tall. 


TABLE  FOR   BLACKBOARD. 

r  Proper. 

Noun )  Common. 

(  Abstract. 

r  Personal. 

Pronoun )  RELATIVE. 

(  Interrogative. 


Subdivisions  of 
Parts  of  Speecli. 


(p> 


Adjective. 


Verb.. 


Adverb., 


Conjunction  . . 


Limiting. 
Qualifying. 

Transitive. 
Intransitive. 

Simple. 
Conjunctive. 

Co-ordinate. 
Subordinate. 


REVIEW    EXERCISE. 

Name  the  class  and  subdivision  0f  each  word  in  tlie  following 


The  spider  is  a  cunning  fellow.     He  makes  his  living  by  his  arts 
and  stratagems.     He  lives  by  snares  and  plots ;  and  yet  he  is  an 
interesting  little  creature.     He  exhibits  wonderful  skill  and  in- 
D  2 


82  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.   III. 

genuity  in  weaving  his  nest,  and  possesses  extraordinary  pa- 
tience and  perseverance.  The  thread  of  the  spider  is  a  soft 
substance,  which  is  contained  in  a  little  bag  in  the  body  of  the 
insect. 

I). 

Little  Ann  had  a  famous  dog.  His  name  was  Grip.  One  day  Ann 
went  out  to  visit  a  poor  woman,  and  took  Grip  with  her.  Grip 
had  not  gone  far  until  he  saw  a  cat.  He  immediately  gave 
chase ;  but  the  cat  ran  up  a  tree,  and  was  safe.  Grip  stood  at 
the  bottom,  and  barked  with  all  his  might ;  but  the  cat  never 
heeded  him. 

c. 

Three  or  four  years  before  ^.att  patented  his  steam-engine  and 
Arkwright  his  spinning-jenny,  there  was  born  in  a  New  Eng- 
land farm-house  a  boy  whose  work  was  needed  to  complete 
theirs.  His  name  was  Eli  Whitney.  Eli  was  a  born  mechanic. 
It  was  his  nature  to  invent  and  construct.  When  a  mere  boy, 
he  made  pins  and  walking-canes,  and  thus  earned  money  to 
support  himself  at  college.  In  1792  he  went  to  Georgia.  A 
friend  with  whom  he  stayed  begged  him  to  invent  a  machine  to 
separate  the  seeds  of  cotton  from  the  fibre.  He  shut  himself  up 
in  his  room  and  brooded  over  the  difficulty.  At  length  his 
rude-looking  machine  was  finished.  It  was  put  in  motion.  It 
was  evident  to  all  that  it  could  do  the  work  of  hundreds  of 
men.  Eli  had  gained  a  great  victory  for  mankind.  In  that 
rude  huf  in  Georgia,  cotton  was  crowned  king,  and  a  new  era 
was  opened  for  America  and  the  world. 

d. 

Then  came  a  burst  of  thunder  sound — 

The  boy — O,  where  was  he  ? 
Ask  of  the  winds  that  far  around 

With  fragments  strewed  the  sea — 

With  mast,  and  helm,  and  pennon  fair, 

That  well  had  borne  their  part ; 
But  the  noblest  thing  that  perished  there, 

Was  that  young,  fiiithful  heart. 


2. 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES.  83 

COMPOSITION    EXERCISES, 
a.— Filling  Blanks. 

THE  MARTINS. 

.  There an  amusing  story of  two  martins.     2.  One  spring, 

on back  to  their  old  nest,  they a  sparrow already 

possession  of  it  as  her  own.     3.  When  the  martins to 

in,  the  sparrow at  them,  and  not the  nest. 

4.  The  swallows  ..;...  some  of  their  companions  to  their  aid ;  but, 

what  they ,  they not the  sparrow 5.  At 

last  they away,  and  the  sparrow (that ,  if  sparrows 

)  that  they  her  to  the  nest  in  quiet. 

G.  But  the  next  day  they  all back.    7.  There more  than 

a  hundred  martins,  and  each  a  bit  of  clay  in  its  beak. 

8.  Then  they  to  work,  and  up  the  door  of  the  nest 

with  the  clay;    so  that  the  poor  sparrow  not  out, 

and  of  course  for  want  of  food  and  air. 

b.— Answering  Questions. 

SUGAR. 
What  happens  to  sugar  if  you  leave  it  in  the  water  ? 
Do  you  know  any  other  things  besides  sugar  that  are 
sweet  ? 
If  you  put  sugar  into  tea,  what  happens  to  the  sugar  ? 
If  you  put  sugar  into  tea,  does  anything  happen  to  the 
tea? 

FRUIT-TREES. 
At  what  time  of  the  year  do  fruit-trees  blossom  ? 
When  is  the  fruit  ripe  ? 
When  do  the  leaves  fall  from  the  trees  ? 
'^      Are  there  any  trees  which  are  in  leaf  all  the  year  round  ? 


I 


c— Composition  from  Outlines. 

BREAD. 
Made  from  wheat — crushed  in  the  mill — sifting  or  separating  into 
the  bran  and  the  flour— the  flour  then  formed  into  dough  by 


84  SUBDIVISION    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.   III. 

being  well  mixed  with  water— leavening  the  dongh — mixing  it 
w4th  yeast  or  old  leaven — rising — baking — bread  made  from 
Indian  corn,  barley,  and  rye — how  these  kinds  compare  with 
wheaten  bread.  [Girls  may  add  a  recipe  for  making  any  kind 
of  bread  or  cake.] 

d.— Abstract  from  Memory. 

TURNING    THE    GRINDSTONE. 

When  I  was  a  little  boy,  I  remember,  one  cold  winter's  morning, 
I  was  accosted  by  a  smiling  man  with  an  axe  on  his  shoulder. 
"  My  pretty  boy,"  said  he,  *'  has  your  father  a  grindstone  ?" 
"  Yes,  sir,'?  said  I.  *'  You  are  a  fine  little  fellow,"  said  he ;  "  will 
you  let  me  grind  my  axe  on  it  ?"  Pleased  with  the  compliment 
of  "  fine  little  fellow,"  "  O  yes,  sir,"  I  answered,  "  it  is  down  in 
tlie  shop."  "  And  will  you,  my  little  man,'?  said  he,  patting  me 
on  the  head,  *'  get  me  a  little  hot  water  ?"  How  could  I  refuse  ? 
I  ran,  and  soon  brought  a  kettleful.  "  How  old  are  you  ?  and 
what's  your  name ?"  continued  he ;  "I  am  sure  you  are  one  of 
the  finest  lads  that  ever  I  have  seen ;  will  you  just  turn  a  few 
minutes  for  me  ?" 

Tickled  with  the  flattery,  like  a  little  fool,  I  went  to  work,  and 
bitterly  did  I  regret  it.  It  was  a  new  axe,  and  I  toiled  and 
tugged  till  I  was  very  tired.  The  school-bell  rang,  but  I  could 
not  get  away ;  my  hands  were  blistered,  and  the  axe  was  not 
lialf  ground.  At  length,  however,  it  was  sharpened,  and  the 
man  turned  to  me  with,  "Now,  you  little  rascal,  you've  played 
truant ;  scud  to  the  school,  or  you'll  catch  it !"  It  was  hard 
enough  to  turn  a  grindstone,  but  to  be  called  a  little  rascal  was 
too  bad. 

e,— Letter-writing. 

Write  a  letter  to  your  teacher,  giving  an  account  of  some  picnic, 
excursion,  exhibition,  play,  or  accident. 

Note.  —  Carefully  read  the  "Directions  for  Letter- writing,'*  page  171. 


I? 


4 


SECTION  IV. 
MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 


XLIX— MODIFICATIONS  DEFINED. 

A  noun  may  denote  one  or  more  than  one  of  the  objects  named : 
as — 

ONE.  WORE  THAN  ONE. 

star  stars 

hidy  ladies 

ox  oxen 

The  distinction  between  one  and  more  than  one  is  called  number. 

A  noun  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  verb, 
or  it  may  denote  that  the  person  or  thing  named  possesses  some* 
thing. 

1.  Mother  [suhj.]  loves  baby  [obj.]. 

2.  Baby  [subj.]  loves  mother  [ohj.]. 

3.  The  &<??/'s  kite  is  torn  [poss.]. 

These  differences  in  the  form  or  use  of  nouns  are  called  case. 

An  adjective  may  denote  a  quality  in  different  degrees :  thus — 

1.  John  is  a  tall  boy. 

2.  James  is  taller  than  John. 

8.  Richard  is  the  tallest  boy  in  the  class. 

The  changes  to  denote  different  degrees  of  a  quality  are  called 
comparison. 


\ 


86 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 


A  verb  may  denote  an  action  now  going  on,  or  one  done,  or  one 
to  he  done :  as — 

We  walk — we  ride. 

We  icalked — we  Q^ode. 

We  shall  icalJc — we  shall  ride. 

The  form  by  which  a  verb  expresses  time  is  called  tense. 

Any  grammatical  change  in  a  part  of  speech  is  called  a  modifica- 
tion of  that  part  of  speech :  hence — 

Definition.  —  Modifications  of  tlie  parts  of  speecli  are  tlieir 
grammatical  clianges.* 


REFERENCE   TABLE   OF   MODIFICATIONS. 


Noun. 


r  Number. 

\  Case. 

I  [Gender  and  Person.] 


Pronoun . 


Adjective  and 
Adverb 


Verb. 


Person. 
Gender. 
Number. 
Case. 

Comparison. 

Person. 

Number. 

Tense. 

Mood. 

Voice. 


*  The  expression  "grammatical  form"  is  deemed  by  the  author  a  more 
exact  defining  term  for  the  "  properties  "  of  the  parts  of  speech ;  and  that  terra 
is  employed  in  his  advanced  grammar.  But  for  elementary  purposes  the  word 
"modifications"  may  be  preferred  as  less  abstract.  Teachers  will  please  ob- 
serve, however,  that  "modifications"  is  used  in  an  enlarged  sense,  embracing 
all  strictly  grammatical  changes,  whether  expressed  by  inflections,  radical 
change,  the  use  of  auxiliaries,  or  by  mere  grammatical  relation. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    NOUN.  87 

The  preposition,  the  conjunction,  and  the  interjection  have  no 
grammatical  changes  (modifications). 


L.— MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  NOUN. 

The  noun  has  two  principal  modifications : 

*  I.  Number.     II.  Case. 

NOTE. — The  secondary  modifications,  namely,  gender  and  person, 
are  explained  in  the  Notes  on  page  90. 

1.  E'umber. 

Number  is  a  modification  expressing  one  or  more  tlian  one  of  the 
objects  named  by  tlie  noun. 

There  are  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the  pluraL 
The  singular  number  denotes  one :  as,  star^  child. 
The  plural  number  denotes  more  than  one :  as,  stars,  diildren. 


EULES  FOR  FCEMING  THE  PLURAL. 

General  Rule. — The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally  formed 
by  adding  s  to  the  singular, 

Exercise. — Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns : 

bud  eagle  citizen  number 

flower  liawk  president  gender 

fruit  wren  monarch  case 

Special  Eule  I.— When  the  singular  ends  in  s,  sh,  z,  x,  or  ch  soft 
(as  m  churcH),  the  plural  is  formed  by  addmg  es,  makmg  another  syl- 
lable: thus— 

gas,  gas-es  waltz,  waltz-es 

guess,  guess-es  fox,  fox-es 

dish,  dish-es  bench,  bench-es 

Obs.— Some  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  cs  without  in- 
crease of  syllables :  as,  hero,  heroes;  potato,  potatoes. 


88  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

Exercise. — Write  tlie  plural  of  the  following  nouns  : 

kiss  lash  topaz  thrush 

cross  birch  adz  hoax 

match  compass  tax  miss 

Special  Rule  II.— When  the  singular  ends  in  y  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, the  plural  is  formed  by  changing  the  y  into  i  and  adding  es  •.  thus— 
sky,  skies ;  lady,  ladies ;  balcony,  balconies. 

Obs.— But  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  the  plural  is  formed  by  the 
General  Rule. 

Exercise. — Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns: 

story  party  beauty  joy 

ray  quality  duty  pony 

injury  society  century  donkey 

Special  Rule  III.— Some  nonns  ending  in  f  or  fe  form  their  plnral 
by  changing  f  or  fe  into  v,  and  adding  es:  as— 

thief,  thieves ;  wife,  wives. 

Exercise. — Write  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns : 

knife  leaf  self  elf 

loaf  shelf  wolf  beef 

life  calf  sheaf  half 


IRREGULAR  PLURALS. 

The  following  nouns  form  their  plural  irregularly : 

foot  feet 

tooth         teeth 
goose         geese 

\^For  peculiarities  of  number^  foreign  plurals^  etc.^  see  Appendix^ 
pages  181-183.] 


man 

men 

ox 

oxen 

woman 

women 

mouse 

mice 

child 

children 

louse 

lice 

MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    NOUN.  89 


2.  Case. 
Case  is  a  modification  d^notin^  tlie  relation  of  a  noun  to  some 
other  word  in  the  sentence. 

There  are  three,  cases  of  nouns :  I.  The  nominative.  II.  The 
POSSESSIVE.     III.  The  objective. 

The  nominative  case  is  that  form  which  a  noun  has  when  it  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb. 

The  possessive  case  is  that  form  which  a  noun  has  in  order  to 
denote  ownership  or  possession. 

The  objective  case  is  that  use  which  a  noun  has  when  it  is  the 
object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition.  Its  form  is  the  same  as  the 
nominative  case. 


*  RULES  FOR  THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

1.  The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  (')  and  s 
to  the  nominative  singular :  as,  boj,  boy's. 

2.  The  possessive  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe 
to  the  nominative  plural:  as,  boys,  boys' ;  but  when  the  nominative  plural 
does  not  end  in  s,  the  possessive  plural  is  formed  like  the  possessive  sin- 
gular :  as,  children,  children's  ;  oxen,  oxen's  ;  sheep,  sheep's. 

Exercise. — Write  the  possessive,  singular  and  plural  (if  any),  of 
the  folloAving  nouns : 

1.  child;  prince;  woman;  king;  cable;  tutor. 

2.  peril;  mercy;  father;  Henry;  aunt;  cat. 

3.  Charles;  gardener;  brother;  poetess;  author;  painter. 

4.  sculptor;  engineer;  sister;  Socrates;  princess;  bridge. 

5.  house;  Peter;  righteousness;  ox;  thief;  sheep. 

Declension, — A  noun  is  said  to  be  declined  when  we  name  its 
three  cases  in  the  two  numbers;  the  process  of  doing  so  is  called 
declension. 


90 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 


DECLENSION    OF    NOUNS. 


BOY. 

MAN. 

6INGUL.\ll. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.     boy 

boys 

Nom. 

man 

men 

Poss.     boy's 

boys' 

Poss. 

man's 

men's 

Obj.      boy 

boys 

Olj, 

man 

men 

LADY. 

SHEEP. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

JS^om.     lady 

ladies 

JVom. 

sheep 

sheep 

Poss,     lady's 

ladies' 

Poss. 

sheep's 

sheep's 

0&;.       lady 

ladies 

Obj. 

sheep 

sheep 

( 


NOTES  ON  GENDER  AND  PERSON  IN  NOUNS. 


I.  Gender. — When  the  noun  is  the  name  of  a  male,  it  is  said  to 
be  of  the  masculine  gender ;  "vvhen  it  is  tlie  name  of  a  female,  it  is 
said  to  be  of  the  feminine  gender.  Things  which  have  no  sex,  or 
which  are  not  spoken  of  as  male  or  female,  are  said  to  be  of  the  neuter 
gender. 

Sometimes  the  distinction  of  male  and  female  is  shown  by  the  form 
of  the  nomi :  as,  lion^  lioness. 

Sometimes  it  is  shown  by  prefixing  a  word  denoting  sex :  as,  he-lear, 
she-bear. 

Sometimes  it  is  shown  by  the  use  of  Quite  diflferent  words :  as,  boy^ 
girl;  bachelor^  spinster. 


II.  Person. — In  some  pronotins  the  names  ^/'s^,  second,  and  third  per- 
son are  used  to  denote  the  distinction  between  the  speaker,  the  person 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    NOUN.  91 

spoken  to,  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.    This  distinction  is 
shown  in  the  pronouns  called  personal  pronouns  :  namely — 

First  person I       (denoting  the  speaker). 

Second  person you  (denoting  the  person  spoken  to). 

f  he 
Third  person <  she  j- (denoting  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of). 


n-son <  she  >{ 

(it     ) 


We  sometimes  join  a  noun  with  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person :  as — 
I  Paul  have  written  it. 

And  sometimes  we  address  a  person  by  a  real  name  instead  of  a 
pronoun:  as — 

riato^  thou  reasoncst  well. 

The  noun  "Paul"  is  in  the  j^rs^  person,  and  the  noun  "Plato"  in 
tlie  second  person.  With  the  exception  of  such  examples  as  these, 
nouns  are  always  the  names  of  persons  or  things  that  we  speak  of — 
which  may  be  denoted  by  Tie^  or  she^  or  it — and  hence  are  in  the  third 
person.  Besides,  there  is  no  change  of  form  to  mark  the  person  of  a 
noun.  This  distinction  is,  therefore,  of  little  importance  in  parsing 
nouns. 


LI.— THE  NOUN :  ConstrnctiTe  Exercises, 

I. 

Write -three  sentences  on  each  of  the  following  nouns,  bringing 
•in  each  noun,  as,  1.  subject ;  2.  possessive ;  3.  object. 

Model :  "The  ocean.'' 

1.  The  ocean  is  the  great  body  of  w\^ter  surrounding  the  globe. 

2.  The  ocean^s  greatest  depth  has  never  been  found  out. 

3.  The  Sandwich  Islanders  love  the  ocean. 

1.  The  horse.  3.  My  cousin.  5.  The  river. 

2.  A  ship.  4.  Washington.  6.  A  tiger. 


92  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 


II. 

Write  these  sentences  so  as  to  make  each  statement  m  the  singu- 
lar number. 

Model  :  "  Dutiful  children  obey  their  parents."    Changed— K  dutiful  child 
obej^s  its  parents. 

1.  Dutiful  children  obey  their  parents. 

2.  Men  are  mortal. 

3.  Sheep  have  valuable  wool  on  their  backs. 

4.  The  oxen  tread  out  the  corn. 

5.  Little  women  sometimes  have  great  minds. 

6.  These  deer  roam  wild  over  the  mountains. 

7.  The  schools  are  conducted  very  well. 


m. 

Write  these  sentences  so  as  to  make  each  statement  in  \\\q  plural 
number. 

Model:  "My  boy's  tooth  is  decayed  by  eating  sweetmeats."     Chaiiged— 
My  boy's  teeth  are  decayed  by  eating  sweetmeats. 

1.  My  boy's  tooth  is  decayed  by  eating  sweetmeats. 

2.  A  goose,  by  cackling,  is  said  to  have  saved  Rome. 

3.  The  mouse  has  been  nibbling  at  the  cheese. 

4.  The  ox  browses  in  the  green  meadow. 

5.  The  sheep  furnishes  us  with  an  important  article  used  in  mak- 

ing clothing. 

6.  A  man  of  words  and  not  of  deeds 
Is  like  a  garden  full  of  weeds. 

7.  An  honest  man  is  the  noblest  work  of  God. 

8.  The  child  likes  to  play. 

9.  The  woman  washes  clothes  on  the  beach. 

10.  A  deer  is  a  beautiful  animal. 

11.  A  salmon  was  leaping  in  the  water. 

12.  The  ox  was  drawing  the  team. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    NOUN.  93 


lY. 

1.  Write  a  sentence  throwing  into  the  plural  form  the  statement, 

The  'Galley  rejoices. 

2.  Write  in  the  singular  form  this  sentence:  PhilosojyJiers  survey 

mankind  from  China  to  Peru. 

3.  The  cargo  has  arrived :  write  a  sentence  stating  that  more  than 

one  has  arrived. 

4.  Write  in  the  singular  form  the  statement,  Good  wives  wish  to 

lylease  their  husbands. 

5.  Write  in  the  plural  form  the  statement,  A  man  tries  to  he  inch, 

6.  Monarchs  tax  their  subjects :  write  this  in  the  singular  form. 

7.  Write  in  the  singular  form :  Monkeys  flourish  in  Africa. 

8.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  man  in  the  plural. 

9.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  mice  in  the  singular. 

10.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  cJiild  in  the  plural. 

11.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  i^enny  in  the  plural. 

12.  Write  a  sentence  introducing /<?<?^  in  the  singular. 

13.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  ox  in  the  plural. 

14.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  sheep  in  the  singular. 

15.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  sheep  in  the  plural. 

16.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  teeth  in  the  singular. 

17.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  woman  in  the  plural. 

18.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  geese  in  the  singular. 

19.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  ^enc6  in  the  singular. 

20.  Write  a  sentence  introducing  hippopotamus  in  the  plural. 


1.  Write  a  sentence  using  elephant  in  the  possessive  form  singular. 

2.  Write  a  sentence  using  sun  in  the  possessive  form  singular. 

3.  Write  a  sentence  using  lady  in  the  possessive  form  plural. 

4.  Write  a  sentence  using  crocodile  in  the  possessive  form  plural. 

5.  Write  a  sentence  using  sheep  in  the  possessive  form  singular 

and  plural. 
C.  Write  a  sentence  using  calf  in  the  possessive  form  plural. 


94 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 


LII.— MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PRONOUN. 

I.  The  Personal  Pronouns. 

The  personal  pronoiins  have  modifications  denoting  person,  gen- 
der, number,  and  case.     They  are  thus  decHned : 


Nom.        Poss.  Ohj. 

We,     our  or  ours,      us. 
You,    your  or  yours,  you. 


Nmn,        Poss.  Ohj. 

First  person^        I,  my  or  mine,  me. 

Second^  You,  your  or  yours,  you. 

C  Mas.       He,  his,  him. 

Thh'dj  <  Fein.      She,  her  or  hers,  her. 

( Neut.      It,  its,  it. 
Second  pcrs.^  solemn  style.  Thou,  thy  or  thine,  thee.  M?m.  pi.  Ye. 


They,  their  or  theirs,  them. 


NOTES   ON   THE   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

I.  Excei^t  ill  tlie  third  personal  pronoun  singular,  which  has  a  form 
for  each  gender  (he^  she^  it)^  the  gender  of  the  personal  pronouns  de- 
pends on  the  gender  of  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand.  Thus,  /,  thou., 
we^  you  may  be  either  masculine  or  feminine  according  as  they  take 
the  place  of  names  of  males  or  of  females ;  and  they  may  be  masculine, 
feminine,  or  neuter  according  as  it  takes  the  place  of  a  masculine,  a 
feminine,  or  a  neuter  noun. 

II.  The  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  have  two 
possessive  forms:  my.,  mine;  your.,  yours;  our.,  ours;  also  the  third 
feminine  has  her.,  hers.  The  former  of  each  pair  is  used  w^hen  joined 
with  a  noun ;  the  latter  is  used  when  the  noun  is  omitted.    Thus — 


This  is 


'  my     ^ 

'  mine. 

her 

hers. 

our 

.  house. 

But,  This  house  is  - 

ours. 

your 

yours. 

.  their  . 

^  theirs. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PRONOUN.  95 


II.  The  Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

The  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  ivho  and  which  have 
modifications  denoting  case.     That  and  ivhat  are  not  declined. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nam,       Poss.        Ohj.  JVbm.        Pass.       Oh), 

m.  or/.  Who,       whose,     whom.  Who,       whose,     whom. 

«i.,/.j  or  n.     Which,    whose,     which.  Which,    whose,     which. 


EXERCISE    33. 
a. 

Tell  thb  person,  number,  and  case  of  the  pronouns. 

li  Heaven  helps  men  who  help  themselves. 

2. /Promise  me  that  you  will  send  him  what  he  wants. 

3.  Whatever  he  asks  I  will  give  him. 

4./ Avoid  such  companions  as  do  not  s]3eak  the  truth. 

5.  Who  found  the  money  ?     It  was  we. 

6.  We  bathed  in  Great  Salt  Lake,  whose  waters  floated  us  lik© 

corks. 

7.  I  think  I  know  what  you  were  talking  about. 

8.  This  is  the  dog  that  w^orried  the  cat  that  caught  the  rat  that 

ate  tlie  malt. 

9.  Whom  did  you  say  she  married  ? 

10.  What  is4t  worth  ?    What  is  it  good  for  ? 

1.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  personal  pronoun  of  the 

first  person  singular. 

2.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  personal  pronoun  of  the 

third  person  plural.  r 

S.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  personal  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  singular  number,  feminine  gender. 

4.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  relative  who  in  the  objec- 

tive case. 


96  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

5.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  relative  wMcli  in  the  pos- 

sessive case. 

6.  Compose  a  sentence  containing  the  interrogative  pronoun  icliat 

in  the  nominative  case. 


LIIL— MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE  AND  ADVERB. 

The  adjective  may  change  its  form  to  denote  comparison.    Thus— 

1.  John  is  a  tall  boy. 

2.  James  is  taller  than  John. 

8.  Richard  is  the  tallest  boy  in  the  class. 

Explanation.— The  expression  "  a  tall  boy  "  means  a  boy  who  can  be 
said  to  be  tall  "  for  ti  boy ;"  that  is,  without  comparison.  But  when  it 
is  said  that  "  James  is  taller  than  John,"  w^e  mean  that  James  has  more 
of  the  quality  of  tallness  than  John  has.  And  when  w^e  say,  "Eichard 
is  the  tallest  boy  in  the  class,"  we  mean  that,  as  regards  the  "  boys  in 
the  class,"  Richard  has  the  quality  of  tallness  in  the  greatest  degree. 

Definition  I. — Comparison  is  a  modification  of  adjectives  (and 
adverbs)  to  express  degrees  of  quantity  or  quality^ 

Definition  II. — The  degrees  of  comparison  are  called  the  posi- 
tive, the  comparative,  and  the  superlative  degree. 

The  positive  degree  denotes  simiDle  quantity  or  qualij;y. 
The  comparative  denotes  a'greater  degree  of  the  quantity  or  quality. 
The  superlative  degree  expresses  the  greatest  degree  of  the  quantity 
or  quality. 

RULE  FOR  COMPARATIVE  AND  SDPEEIATIVE. 

The  comparative  degree  is  generally  formed  by  adding  er  to  the 
positive:  as,  tall^  taller;  and  the  superlative  degree  by  adding  est 
to  the  positive :  as,  tall^  tallest. 

But  many  adjectives  of  tv;o  syllables  and  all  adjectives  of  more 


MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    ADJECTIVE. 


97 


than  two  are  compared  by  prefixing  to  the  positive  more  for  the 
comparative  and  most  for  the  superlative:  as,  splendid^  more  splen- 
did, most  splendid ;  beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 

NOTE. — The  addition  of  er  and  est  sometimes  causes  the  positive 
to  undergo  certain  changes,  according  to  the  rules  for  spelling  deriva- 
tive words:  thus — 

blue  +  er  r=  bluer  *  (not  Uueer) 
red  +  er  =  redder  *  (not  reder) 
happy  +  er  =  happier  *  (not  Tiappyer) 

Irregular  Adjectives.  —  A  few  adjectives  form  their  compara- 
tives and  superlatives  irregularly.     Thus — 


)SITIVE. 

COMPARATIVE. 

SUPEKLATIVE. 

good 

better 

best 

well 

better 

best 

bad  \ 
evil  [ 
ill     ) 

little 

/   ^ 

worse 
less 

worst 
least 

K 

many  \ 
much  ) 

more 

most 

far 

farther 

or  further 

farthest  oi 

'  furthest 

near 

nearer 

nearest  or 

next 

late 

later  or 

latter 

latest  or  last 

old 

older 'or 

elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

hind 

hinder 

hindmost 

[up:  adv, 

.]   upper 

upmost  or 

uppermost 

[out:  adv.']  outer 

utmost,  uttermost,  or  outmost 

The  Adverb. — The  adverb,  like  the  adjective,  often  undergoes  a 
change  of  form  to  express  comparison. 

Adverbs  are  compared  in  the  same  way  as  adjectives :  thus — 

POSITIYE.  COMPARATIVE.  SDTERLATIVE. 

soon  sooner  soonest 

sweetly  more  sweetly  most  sweetly 

*  Teachers  will  call  attention  to  the  rules  for  spelling  derivative  words,  ap- 
plicable in  these  cases. 


98  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV* 


EXERCISE    34. 
a. 

Select  the  adjectives,  and  state  the  degree  of  comparison  of  each. 

1.  The  squirrel  is  a  merry  little  fellow. 

2.  The  color  was  whiter  than  snow. 

3.  The  shadows  grow  longer  as  evening  approaches. 

4.  To-morrow  will  be  the  maddest,  merriest  day. 

5.  Homer  was  the  most  famous  poet  of  ancient  times. 

6.  This  is  the  best  exercise  that  has  been  written  this  week. 

7.  The  sun  is  more  brilliant  than  the  moon. 

8.  A  prudent  man  saves  something  for  a  rainy  day. 

9.  Yesterday  was  a  pleasanter  day  than  we  expected. 
10.  The  Amazon  is  the  broadest  river  in  the  world. 

b. 

Write,  according  to  the  model,  sentences  stating  the  following 
facts.  Express  the  italicized  words  in  each  statement  by  one  adjec- 
tive : 

Model  :  "John  lias  a  greater  degree  of  wisdom  than  Al'^xandcr"  =  John  is 
wisei'  than  Alexander. 

1.  John  has  a  greater  degree  of  icisdom  than  Alexander. 

2.  Sugar  possesses  the  greatest  degree  of  sweetness  of  all  substances. 

3.  The  Mississippi  has  greater  length  than  the  Amazon. 

4.  Some  mountain  [naming  it]  has  the  greatest  degree  of  loftiness  of 

any  mountain  in  the  world. 

5.  Contentment  has  more  of  the  quality  of  goodness  than  wealth. 

6.  Gold  has  greater  heaviness  than  silver. 

c. 

Select  the  adverbs,  and  state  the  degree  of  comparison  of  each. 

1.  The  boat  arrived  sooner  than  we  expected. 

2.  Higher,  higher  let  us  climb. 

3.  The  wind  roared  loudly  among  the  stately  pines. 

4.  Merrily,  merrily  bounds  the  bark  across  the  foaming  sea. 

5.  It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive. 

6.  This  field  produces  most  abundantly. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    VEBU.  99 

LIV.— MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE   VERB. 

Number  of  Modifications, — The  verb  lias  modifications  of  five 
kinds:  namely,  I.  Person.  II.  Number.  III.  Tense.  IV.  Mood. 
V.  Voice. 

1.  Person  and  Number. 

Definition.— Person  and  number  in  verbs  are  modifications  ex- 
pressing tlie  agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  subject. 

Person. — Verbs  are  said  to  bave  tlirce  persons,  according  as  tbey 
are  connected  witb  one  of  tlie  tliree  personal  pronouns.     Tbus — 
1.  I  call — (verb  in  the  first  person). 
3.  You  call — (verb  in  the  second  person). 
3.  He  [or  any  singular  noun]  calls — (verb  in  the  thi7'd  person). 

Number. — Verbs  are  said  to  bave  two  numbers  according  as  they 
are  connected  with  a  singular  or  a  plural  subject.     Thus — 

1.  The  boy  calls — (verb  in  the  singular  number). 

2.  The  boys  call — (verb  in  the  plural  number). 

NOTE.— There  are  very  few  actual  forms  to  mark  the  person  and 
number  of  a  verb,  and  usually  these  modifications  can  be  told  only  by 
referring  to  the  subject.  "A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number." — Syntax,  Rule  II. 


EXERCISE    35. 

a-  /,,     ;      ^    . 

Tell  the  person  and  number  of  each  verb  by  referring  to  the 
person  and  number  of  the  subject. 

1.  I  met  a  little  cottage  girl.  '^'" 

2.  The  lady  walks  gracefully. 

3.  You  learn  your  lesson  quickly. 

4.  The  wind  blew  down  the  lofty  tree. 

5.  They  w^ent  away  the  day  after  we  arrived. 


100  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

6.  He  ran  with  all  liis  might. 

7.  I  remember,  I  remember  the  house  where  I  was  born. 

8.  We  are  fond  of  swimming. 

9.  The  young  larks  have  left  their  nests,  but  they  cannot  fly  far. 
10. 1  think  we  are  never  weary  of  beholding  nature. 

11.  Various  officers  fell  in  that  engagement. 

12.  The  sheep  know  when  the  rain  is  coming. 

13.  The  Greeks  loved  the  fine  arts. 

14.  She  was  eight  years  old,  she  said, 

15. 1  flew  to  the  pleasant  fields  traversed  so  oft 

In  life's  morning  march,  when  my  bosom  was  young; 
I  heard  my  own  mountain-goats  bleating  aloft. 

And  knew  the  sweet  strain  that  the  corn-reaper  sung. 

b. 

Supply  verbs  of  the  proper  person. 

1.  Rain in  showers.  4.  Because  they sweetly. 

2.  He to  school  daily,  5.  How  hard  the  wind ! 

3.  I the  birds.  6.  You to  succeed. 

c. 

Change  the   following  verbs   into  the   singular  form,  using  a 
singular  subject  instead  of  each  plural  subject: 
Flowers. ....  .bloom,  grow,  fade,  flourish,  thrive. 

Animals eat,  drink,  sleep,  live,  die. 


2.  The  Tenses. 
Definition. — Tenses  are  modifications  of  the  verb  to  denote  the 
time  of  an  action  or  event, 

NOTE. — The  tenses  denote,  in  addition  to  the  time  of  an  action  oi 
event,  the  degree  of  its  completeness. 

There  are  six  tenses :  namely — 

Present  Present  Perfect 

Past  Past  Perfect 

Future  Future  Perfect 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    VERB.  101 

3.  The  Moods.  ,  ,,,,,,,., 

Definition. — Moods  (or  modes)  are  modiiica^ioiis  of  the  t^erb  tb 
denote  the  manner  of  asserting  action  or  being. 

NOTE. — "  Mood  (or  mode)  is  a  grammatical  form  denoting  the  style 
or  manner  of  predication." — Swinton's  English  Grammar, 

There  are  four  moods :  namely — 

Indicativa  Subjunctive 

Potential  Imperative 

The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a  fact,  or  of  a 
matter  taken  as  a  fact. 

The  potential  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  something  that 
/inay,  can,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  something 
merely  thought  of. 

The  imperative  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a  command  or 
request. 


4.  The  Verbals. 

^Definition.  —  Tlie  verbals  are  verb -forms,  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  the  verb,  and  having  in  addition  the  use  of  some  otlier 
part  of  speech. 

The  verbals  are  of  two  kinds :   I.  Infinitives.     II.  Participles. 

The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun.  It  merely  names  the  action  or 
state  v/hich  the  verb  asserts.     Thus — 

To  read  good  books  is  improving. 

"  To  read  "  is  an  infinitive.  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  verb, 
because  it  takes  an  object,  "  books ;"  and  it  has  in  addition  the  use  of 
a  noun,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  is."  Hence  "  to  read  "  is 
a  verhal  noun. 


102  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

^  .  The  root  ..(ot  ioot,  infinitive)  of  a  verb  is  a  verb  in  its  simplest 
f on^Tj  .aiici  4s-  't^ic  same  as  tbe  infinitive  witliout  the  preposition  to. 
Thus  ^^kdA^  t'fie^ooi  of-the  verb  to  read,  ^ 

The  Gerund.  —  Besides  the  regular  form  of  the  infinitive,  the 
verbal  in  ing  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  an  infinitive :  thus — 
Reading  good  books  (=  to  read  good  books)  is  profitable. 
This  form  is  called  the  gerund.     The  gerund  is  a  verbal  noun. 

^The  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective.      It  shares  or  participates 
in  the  nature  both  of  the  verb  and  of  the  adjective.     Thus — 
The  boy,  seeing  the  bear,  ran  away. 

*'  Seeing  "  is  a  participle.  It  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the  verb,  be- 
cause it  takes  an  object,  "  bear,"  and  of  the  adjective,  because  it  is 
joined  with  a  noun,  "  boy,"  to  modify  it.  ^""^ — ''" 

There  are  two  participles  formed  by  suflSxes — the  present  parti- 
ciple and  the  past  participle. 

rEuLE. — The  present  participle  of  all  verbs  is  formed  by  adding  ma 

to  the  root :  as — 

icrite^  writing;  liop^  liopiyinQ,  '^ 

NOTE. — In  adding  i?ig  the  rules  for  spelling  derivative  words  must 
be  observed. 

\EuLE. — The  past  participle  of  ipost  verbs  is  formed  by  addmg  ed  to 
the  root ;  but  some  verbs  form  their  past  participles  in  other  ways :  as — 
tcritCj  written  ;  tell,  told, 

NOTE.— Verbs  that  do  not  form  their  past  participle  by  adding  ed 
belong  to  the  class  of  irregular  verbs.     (See  Definition,  page  103.) 


5.  Voice. 
>  Definition. — Voice  is  a  modification  pf  the  transitive  verl),  ex- 
pressing wlietlier  tlie  subject  names  tlio||[ictor  or  the  recipient  of 
the  action. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    VERB.  103 

There  are  two  voices :  namely,  the  active  voice  and  the  passive 
voice. 

A  verb  in  the  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting  upon 

an  object :  as — 

Watt  invented  the  steam-engine. 

A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  receiving  an 

action :  as — 

The  steam-engine  was  invented  by  Watt. 

V    Rule. — The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  uniting  with  the  past  parti- 
ciple of  any  transitive  verb  the  various  parts  of  the  verb  to  be. 


6.  Conjugation  of  Verbs. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  systematic  arrangement  of  its 
various  forms. 

There  are  two  conjugations:  I.  The  regular.  II.  The  irreg- 
ular. These  two  conjugations  are  distinguished  by  the  mode  of 
forming  the  past  tense  (indicative)  and  the  past  participle. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  whose  past  tense  and  past  participle  arc 
formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  root:  as,  (root)  love;  (past  tense)  loved; 
(past  participle)  loved. 

Obs. — In  suffixing  ed  care  must  be  taken  to  observe  the  rules  for  spelling 
derivative  words. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  whose  past  tense  or  past  participle,  or 
both,  are  not  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  root:  as,  (root)  taJce;  (past 
tense)  tooJc ;  (past  participle)  ta^en. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are :  I.  The  present  indicative. 
II.  The  past  indicative.     III.  The  past  participle. 

I         An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  used  to  assist  in  conjugating  other 
^  verbs.     The  principal  auxiliaries  are,  c?o,  he,  have,  shall j  may,  can, 
must,  with  their  variations. 


104  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

COXJUOATIOX  OF  A   EEGULAR  VERB.* 
TO    LOVE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present — love.  Past — loved.  Past  Participle — loved. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
The  present  indicative  is  a  simple  tense,  and  one  of  the  principal 
parts.    It  is  varied  thus : 

SINGULAK.  TLUKAL. 

1.  I  love,  1.  We  love, 

2.  You  love,  2.  You  love, 

3.  Hef  loves ;  3.  They  X  love. 

Past  Tense, 
The  past  indicative  is  a  simple  tense,  and  one  of  the  princiiDal  parts. 
In  regular  verbs  it  is  formed  by  adding  eel  to  the  root ;  in  irregular 
verbs,  in  some  other  way. 

SINGULAR.  PLUliAL. 

1.  I  loved,  1.  We  loved, 

2.  You  loved,  2.  You  loved, 

3?  He  loved ;  3.  They  loved.  -    • 

Future  Tense. 
The  future  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  auxiliaries  sliall  or  icill  to  the 
root:  thus — 

1.  Expressing  simply  a  future  action  or  event. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  shall  love,  1.  We  shall  love, 

2.  You  will  love,  2.  You  will  love, 

3.  He  will  love ;  3.  They  will  love. 

*  The  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  love  presents  the  common  form  of  the 
regular  verb.    The  paradigm  embodying  the  ancient  form  of  the  second  per-  ' 
son  singular  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  page  185. 

t  Or  any  other  pronoun  of  the  third  person  singular— s7ie,  it^  etc. ;  or  any 
noun  in  the  singular  number. 

X  Or  any  noun  in  the  plural  number. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    VERB.  105 

2.  Expressing  a  determination^  command^  or  threat, 

1.  I  will  love,  1.  We  will  love, 

2.  You  shall  love,  2.  You  shall  love, 

3.  He  shall  love ;  3.  They  shall  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense, 
The  present  perfect  indicative  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxiliary 
have  with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb. 

SINGULAR.  PLUBA.L. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.  We  have  loved, 

2.  You  have  loved,  2.  You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved ;  3.  They  have  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense, 
The  past  perfect  indicative  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxiliary  had 
with  the  past  participle  of  the  verb. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  had  loved,  1.  We  had  loved, 

2.  You  had  loved,  2.  You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved ;  3.  They  had  loved. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
The  future  perfect  tense  is  formed  by  joining  the  future  tense  of  the 
auxiliary  have  with  the  past  participle. 

SINGULAR.  »  PLURAL. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,  1.  We  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  You  shall  or  will  have  loved,  2.  You  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  loved ;  3.  They  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
The  present  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxiliaries  may^  can, 
or  must  with  the  root. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  may*  love,  1.  We  may  love, 

2.  You  may  love,  2.  You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love ;  3.  They  may  love. 

*  Substitute  caii  and  must. 

E  2 


106  MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 


Past  Tense. 
The  past  potential  is  formed  by  joining  tlie  auxiliaries  mighty  could^ 
iDOiildj  or  sliould  with  the  root. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  might  *  love,  1.  We  might  love, 

2.  You  might  love,  2.  You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love;  3.  They  might  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
The  present  perfect  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  present 
potential  of  the  auxiliary  have  with  the  past  participle. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1. 1  may  have  loved,  1.  We  may  have  loved, 

2.  You  may  have  loved,  2.  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved ;  3.  They  may  have  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
The  past  perfect  is  formed  by  joining  the  past  potential  of  the  aux- 
iliary verb  liave  with  the  past  participle. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  You  might  have  loved,  2.  You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved ;  %  They  might  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
The  present  subjunctive  2S  a  simple  tense  having  the  same  forms  as 
the  present  indicative,  except  that  the  suffix  s  of  the  third  person  is 
omitted.t    It  is  generally  introduced  by  the  conjunctions  if  tlwugh, 
that,  etc. 

SINGULAR.  PLUKAU 

1.  If  I  love,  1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  you  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love ;  3.  If  they  love. 

*  Substitute  could^  wouldy  should. 

f  The  suflSlx  st  in  the  solemn  style  is  also  omitted. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    VERB.  107 

Past  Tense. 
The  past  subjunctive  is  a  simple  tense  having  the  same  forms  as  the 
past  indicative,  and  generally  introduced  by  if^  etc. 

BINQULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  If  I  loved,  1.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  you  loved,  2.  If  you  loved, 
8.  If  he  loved ;                                   8.  If  they  loved. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Love  (you). 


INFINITIVES. 


Present — to  love.     Perfect — to  have  loved.     (Gerunds)  ]  ^^"^"^ ' 


loving ; 
havin<?  loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present — loving.  Perfect — having  loved. 

[See  Appendix,  pages  181-192, /(?r  the  conjugation  of  a  vei^h  with  the 
ancient  form  of  the  second  person  singular,  the  conjugation  of  the 
ve?'!)  TO  BE,  and  a  list  of  irregular  verls.] 


EXERCISE    36. 
a. 

State  to  which  tense  of  the  indicative  mood  each  of  the  following 
verbs  belongs. 

1.  The  boy  walked  home. 

2.  The  steamer  crossed  the  ocean. 
8.  The  enemy  will  take  this  road. 

4.  The  soldiers  took  the  town. 

5.  The  bride  kissed  the  goblet. 
G.  What  a  look  he  gave  ! 

7.  I  shall  drown. 

8.  Bright  rose  the  sun. 

9.  You  wrote  a  letter. 


108  MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

10.  The  rains  descended  and  the  floods  came,  and  beat  upon  that 

house.  ^  / 

11.  The  merchant  wHtes  a  despatch. 

12.  The  merchant  has  written  a  despatch. 

13.  You  play  all  day. 

14.  You  have  played  all  day. 

15.  I  tell  you  I  know  not. 

16. 1  have  told  you  all  I  know. 

17.  They  have  sung  that  song  remarkably  well. 

18.  The  messenger  has  just  left. 

19.  He  has  sent  away  the  ship. 

20.  "We  have  finished  this  exercise. 

21. 1  had  sent  the  messenger  before  you  arrived. 

22.  We  saw  the  deer  before  we  had  passed  through  the  woods. 

23.  After  the  moon  had  risen,  the  wind  fell. 

24.  The  train  had  gone  before  we  reached  the  depot. 

25.  The  sun  had  risen  when  we  left  home. 

26.  When  the  lion  had  shaken  his  victim,  he  left  him. 

27.  They  had  thought  we  did  not  know  of  their  conduct. 

28.  It  appeared  that  the  boy  had  come  home  immediately  after  ho 

left  school. 

29.  When  she  had  thought  a  little  she  wept  bitterly. 

30.  She  had  laid  back  all  his  sunny  curls. 

81.  When  once  you  shall  have  reached  that  hapjDy  shore,  you  will 

have  no  more  sorrow. 
32. 1  shall  have  walked  to  the  depot  before  the  train  arrives. 

33.  Before  Saturday  the  boys  will  have  matured  all  their  plans  for 

the  holidays. 

34.  The  servant  will  go  on  the  errand  as  soon  as  the  messenger  shall 

have  returned. 

35.  The  man  will  have  paid  dearly  for  his  ignorance. 

36.  When  this  exercise  is  completed  we  shall  have  finished  all  the 

compound  tenses. 
87.  She  looks  upon  his  lips,  and  they  are  pale ; 

She  takes  him  by  the  hand,  and  that  is  cold ; 
She  whispers  in  his  ear  a  heavy  tale, 
And  opens  both  his  eyes. 


MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    VERB.  109 

b. 

In  tlie  following  lines,  cliange  tlic  verbs  from  the  present'ten^e 

to  the  past  tense :  ^ 

I  shoot  an  arrow  into  the  air,  \  • 

It  falls  to  earth,  I  know  not  where ;  ^      i      v 

For  so  swiftly  it  flies,  the  sight  .         ;  * 


Can*  not  follow  in  its  flight. 


V 


Make  this  statement  of  some  time  ago :  Steamers  sail  on^the  ooean.    .    V 
Make  this  statement  of  last  niglit:  The  flre  burns  brightly^o-night.    • 
Make  this  statement,  using  ancient  Greelcs  instead  df  *^  :^q  admire     \ 

fine  statues.  .      .  ^    ^      V 

Make  this  statement  about  the  Germans  a  thi^sarid  ye<^'s  ago':  Tfcer   ~ 

Germans  love  independence.  ^    "^       \  W 

^'  *^    \.    V    v* 

From   the   following   hints,  write   a   short   compomid^   tc^^'igji^ 
what  you  think  will  he  the  condition  of  the  wprld  a  hundred  years 
hence.     Underline  each  verb  m  iha  future  term,        ^      ^  9i5#  t*\si 

The  ways  of  travelling  then — balloons,  e| 
The  greatness  of  our  country  then — the  ] 
Our  knowledge  of  distant  parts  of  the  woiid  then- 
Africa,  the  North  Polar  region,  etc.  ^        ;-«     ^ 

Will  all  the  governments  of  Europe  then  be  republics  ?        '    *^ 
Women  votinG*  then — will  a  woman  be  President  ?  *   V 


e  inimbefT)f  p^opl^cj)^  V.i     A 
e  woiid  then — the  inte'rid^'  ft   ^ 


e. 

State  the  mood  and  tense  of  each  of  the  following  verbs. 

1.  The  village  bell  rings. 

2.  If  you  go,  I  shall  follow  you. 

3.  Scholars  may  go  home  when  they  have  learned  this  lesson. 

4.  The  storm  has  ceased. 

*  Change  to  coiild. 


110  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

5.  Come,  all  ye  jolly  shepherds. 

6.  The  khig  can  make  a  belted  knight. 

7.  The  merchant  should- have  learned  more  caution. 

8.  My  steps  might  break  your  rest. 

9.  If  I  had  not  watered  the  flowers  they  would  have  withered. 

10.  Go  where  glory  waits  you. 

11.  The  sun  could  not  shine,  for  dark  clouds  covered  the  sky. 

12.  Up  from  the  ground  he  sprang,  and  gazed — 
But  who  can  pamt  that  gaze  ? 

It  hushed  their  very  hearts  who  saw 
Its  horror  and  amaze : 
They  might  have  chained  him,  as  before 
That  stony  form  he  stood. 

f. 

Tell  which  verbs  are  regular,  and  which  are  irregular,    /.. 

1.  The  famine  came  at  last  upon  the  land,  and  many  perished  for 

want. 

2.  Father  sold  his  farm  when  he  went  to  California. 

3.  The  sun  shone  brightly  yesterday. 

4.  Hearing  the  sound  of  footsteps,  we  resolved  to  go  no  farther. 

5.  Shakspeare  wrote  many  dramas. 

6.  We  hoped  you  would  visit  us  when  the  leaves  fell. 

7.  The  American  soldiers  fought  well. 

8.  The  microscope  shows  us  animalcules. 

9.  The  fox  will  steal  the  hens. 

10.  The  mechanic  repaired  the  engine. 

11.  The  study  of  history  will  improve  our  minds. 

12.  Adams  died  on  the  Fourth  of  July. 

13.  They  grew  in  beauty  side  by  side. 

14.  The  church-bell  rings. 

15.  We  shall  form  our  plans  next  week. 

16.  You  wrote  three  hours  last  night. 

17.  I'm  very  lonely  now,  Mary, 

For  the  poor  make  few  new  friends ; 
But  oh !  they  love  the  better. 
The  few  our  Father  sends. 


MODIFICATIONS   OF  THK   VERB. 


Ill 


BLACKBOARD  REVIEW. 


'  Number 

•  ■   Plural. 
{  Nominative. 

Case 

.  )  Possessive. 

Koun , 

(  Objective. 
(  Masculine. 

Gender 

.  }  Feminine. 
(  Neuter. 
C  First. 

.Person 

.  J  Second. 

(  Third. 

(  First. 

'  Person 

.  }  Second. 
(  Third. 
C  Masculine. 

Gender 

.  }  Feminine. 

Pronoun 

(  Neuter. 

Number 

j  Singular. 
••  (  Plural. 
C  Nominative. 

Case 

.  •<  Possessive. 

. 

(  Objective. 

Adjective  and 
Adverb 

[  Comparison... 

C  Positive. 
..  )  Comparative. 
(  Superlative. 

112 


MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  I  SEC.  IV. 


¥erb. 


Voice  . 


MCOD., 


Tense., 


< 


Person.  , 


KUMBER.. 


Active. 

Passive. 

Indicative. 

Potential. 

Subjunctive. 
^  Imperative. 

Present. 

Past. 

Future. 

Present  Perfect. 

Past  Perfect. 
.  Future  Perfect. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Singular. 

Plural. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

I. 

1.  What  are  modifications  of  the  parts  of  speech  ? 
3.  How  many  parts  of  speech  have  modifications  ? 

3.  Name  three  parts  of  speech  having  no  modifications. 

4.  Which  are  the  two  principal  modifications  of  the  noun  ? 

5.  What  two  secondary  modifications  has  the  noun  ? 

6.  What  is  number  in  nouns  ? 

7.  What  are  the  numbers  ? 

8.  Define  singular  number ;  plural  number. 

II. 

1.  How  is  the  plural  of  nouns  generally  formed  ? 

2.  When  is  es  added  for  the  i^ural  ? 

8.  How  do  singular  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 

form  their  plural  ? 
4.  How  do  some  nouns  ending  inforfe  form  their  plural? 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS.  ^        113 

5.  What  is  case  in  nouns  ? 

6.  How  many  cases  are  there  ? 

7.  What  is  the  nominative  case  ?  possessive  case  ?  objective  case  ? 

III. 
t.  Which  two  cases  of  nouns  have  the  same  form  ? 

2.  What  is  the  rule  for  forming  the  possessive  singular  of  nouns  ? 

3.  What  is  the  rule  for  forming  the  possessive  plural  of  nouns  ? 

4.  Decline  the  noun  loy  ;  man  ;  lady ;  slieep, 

5.  When  is  a  noun  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender  ?  of  the 
feminine  gender  ?  of  the  neuter  gender  ? 

6.  What  are  the  three  persons  of  nouns  ? 

7.  Is  person  in  nouns  marked  by  the  form  of  the  word  ? 

IV. 

1.  What  four  modifications  have  personal  pronouns  l 

2.  Decline  who  ;  which. 

3.  What  is  comparison  ? 

4.  Name  the  three  degrees  of  comparison. 

5.  Give  the  general  rule  for  forming  the  comparative  and  superla- 
tive degrees. 

6.  How  are  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  generally 
formed  in  words  of  more  than  two  syllables  ? 

7.  How  are  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  of  adverbs 
formed  ? 

V. 

1.  What  are  the  five  modifications  of  verbs? 

2.  What  are  person  and  number  in  verbs  ? 

3.  How  many  persons  are  there  ?    How  many  numbers  ? 

4.  How  many  tenses  are  there  ? 

5.  How  many  moods  are  there  ? 

6.  Define  indicative  mood ;  potential;  subjunctive;  imperative. 

7.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  verbals  ? 

VI. 

1.  What  is  the  infinitive  ? 

2.  What  is  a  participle? 


114  MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.  [sEC.  IV. 

3.  What  is  voice  in  verbs  ? 

4.  Define  active  voice ;  passive  voice. 

5.  What  is  a  regular  verb  ? 

6.  Wliat  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

7.  What  is  an  auxiliary  verb  ? 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES. 

a.— Composition  from  Outlines. 

Write  a  composition  on  "  My  School  Days,"  by  stating  some  of 
the  following  facts : 

1.  When  you  began  to  go  to  school. 

2.  What  schools  you  have  attended. 

3.  The  names  of  all  your  teachers. 

4.  What  you  have  studied. 

5.  What  your  favorite  studies  are, 

6.  In  what  branches  you  excel. 

7.  Some  incident  of  your  school-life. 

b.— Composition  from  Outlines. 

From  the  following  outlines  write  a  composition  on 
MY  NATIVE  TOWN. 
1.  Situation:  In  w^hat  state,  part  of  the  state,  and  in 
w^hat  county ;  near  w-hat  body  of  water,  city  or 
large  town. 
Outlines.  \  3.  General  DESCRirTiON :  Size,  pursuits  of  the  people, 
trade,  railroads,  steamers,  mills  or  manufactories. 
3.  Scenery  :  Mention  any  lake,  river,  mountain,  or  other 
interesting  object  of  natural  scenery. 

e.— Abstract  from  Memory. 

FIVE  PEAS  IN  ONE  VOJ).— [Adapted  from  Hans  Andersen.] 
Once  there  were  ^ye  peas  growing  in  one  pod.     The  peas  were 
green,  the  pod  was  green,  the  vine  w^as  green,  the  leaves  were  green, 
and  they  thought  all  the  w^orld  was  green.    The  w^arm  sun  shone  on 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISE.  115 

the  vine — the  summer  rain  watered  it.  The  shell  grew  larger,  and 
the  peas  grew  bigger  and  bigger. 

*'  Are  we  to  lie  here  cooped  up  forever  V  asked  one. 

*'  I  am  tired  of  it,"  said  another. 

*'  I  fear  we  shall  become  hard,"  said  a  third. 

"  I  want  to  see  what  there  is  outside,"  said  a  fourth ;  while  the 
fifth,  a  very  little  pea,  cried  because  ^e  could  not  get  out. 

At  length  the  vine  turned  yellow,  the  pod  turned  yellow,  and  the 
peas  turned  yellow. 

"All  the  world  is  turning  yellow,"  said  the  peas,  with  one  voice. 

Then  there  came  an  earthquake,  the  pod  burst  open  with  a  crack, 
and  all  the  five  peas  rolled  out  into  the  yellow  sunshine.  A  little  boy 
clutched  them,  and  said  they  were  fine  peas  for  his  pea-shooter.  Ho 
put  the  biggest  one  into  his  gun,  and  shot  it  out. 

"  Catch  me  if  you  can,"  said  the  big  pea. 

"  I  shall  fly  straight  into  the  sun,"  said  the  next  one. 

"  I  shall  travel  farthest,^'  said  the  third  pea. 

"  Let  me  alone,"  said  the  fourth. 

>'What  is  to  be  will  be,"  said  the  little  pea,  as  he  shot  up  and 
lodged  in  an  empty  flower-pot  in  the  window  of  a  room  where  lay  a 
poor  sick  girl. 

Pretty  soon  the  little  pea  sprouted,  and  began  to  grow  up  into  a 
beautiful  vine. 

"  Dear  mother,  I  think  I  shall  get  well,"  said  the  little  girl  one  day ; 
"  for  my  pea  is  growing  famously." 

"God  grant  it,"  said  the  mother;  and  she  took  a  stick  and  tied  a 
string  to  it,  so  that  the  green  vine  might  have  something  to  cling  to. 

After  many  days  there  stood  a  beautiful  pink  pea-blossom  smiling 
in  the  warm  sunshine.  The  little  girl  kissed  it,  and  said,  "  Now  I  am 
sure  I  am  going  to  get  well." 


SECTION  V. 

SYNTAX. 


Syntax*  is  that  division  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the  relations 
of  words  in  sentences. 

It  is  divided  into  two  parts  —  parsing  and  the  rules  of  con- 
struction. 

Parsing  consists  in  stating  the  class,  subdivision,  and  modifica- 
tions of  the  words  in  a  sentence. 

The  rules  of  construction  are  statements  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples governing  the  relations  of  words  in  sentences. 

I.  Parsing. 
In  parsing  the  different  parts  of  speech  the  method  indicated  in 
the  following  tables  may  be  followed : 

SvBiHYisio^— proper,  common,  or  abstract. 

Number — singular  or  j^hiral.    (Number  in  proper  nouns 

Xoun ^  may  be  omitted.) 

Case — nominatwe,  possessive,  or  objective  (as  denoted  by 

form  or  use). 
^^5^SDlYl&lO^— personal,  relative,  or  interrogative. 
Person — (in  personal  pronouns ;  in  relative  pronouns 
of  the  1st  or  2d  person  only). 
Pronoun...  \  Number — singular  or  plural. 

Gender — (in  personal  pronouns  of  the  3d  person  sin- 
gular only). 
.  Case — nominative,  possessive,  or  oljjective. 


RULES    OF    CONSTRUCTION.  117 

(  Subdivision — limiting  (pronominal)  or  qualifying. 
Adjective...  \  Comfarisou^— positive,  comparative,  or  superlative, 
I  Office — attributive  or  complementary. 

'  Conjugation — regular  or  irregular. 
Subdivision — transitive  or  intransitive. 
Voice — active  or  passive. 

Verb \  Mood — indicative,  potential,  etc. 

Tense— ^r^s^?^^,  past,  etc. 
Person— ^rs#,  second,  or  tliird. 
.  Number — singular  or  plural. 

k({      \\        i  Subdivision — simple  or  conjunctive. 

\  Comparison — i\i!  comparative  ov  superlative). 

Prepositions. . .  .words  connected . 

Conjunctions  ...words  or  propositions  connected. 


II.  EULES   OF   COKSTEUCTION. 

Eule  I, — The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  tlie  nominative  case. 

^    Eule  II. — A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number. 

Eule  III. — Adjectives  and  participles  modify  nouns  or 
pronouns. 

Eule  IV. — A  noun  modifying  another  noun  signifying  a 
different  thing  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Eule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  another 
noun  or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case. 

Eule  VI, — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 


118  SYNTAX.  [sBC.  V. 

Eule  VII. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  complement 
of  an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

Kule  VIII. — An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb. 

Eule  IX. — A  pronoun  agrees  in  person,  gender,  and 
number  with  its  antecedent  or  the  word  that  it  represents. 

Eule  X. — 1.  A  preposition  joins  a  noun  or  pl-onoun  to 
some  other  word. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  depending  on  a  preposition  is  in 
the  objective  case. 

Eule  XI.  —  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or 
propositions. 

Eule  XII.— 1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case  depends 
on  no  other  word  is  put  in  the  nominative  case. 

2.  The  interjection  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  sentence. 


THE  SUBJECT. 
Rule  I.— The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case:  as— 

1.  Water  consists  of  two  gases. 

2.  Re  is  the  man  who  /think  wrote  the  letter. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

water... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  nominative 

case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  consists,"  according  to  Rule  I. 
he is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 


THE    SUBJECT.  119 

masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb 
*'  is,"  according  to  Rule  I. 

wlio is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  singular  number  and  nomina- 
tive case,  subject  of  the  verb  "  wrote,"  according  to  Rule  I. 

I is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 

nominative  case,  subject  of  the  verb  "think,"  according  to 
Rule  L 


EXERCISE    37. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  subjects  according  to  tho 
model. 

1.  Books  are  not  dead  things. 

2.  The  teacher  taught  the  pupils  to  sing. 

3.  The  crows  which  are  feeding  in  the  field  are  easily  frightened. 

4.  I  heard  a  wonderful  story  when  I  was  a  little  girl. 

5.  We  will  know  our  lesson  better  to-morrow. 

6.  lie  lives  in  the  old  cottage  at  the  foot  of  the  hill. 

7.  And  the  mother  gave,  in  tears  and  pain, 

The  flowers  she  most  did  love  ; 
She  knew  she  should  find  them  all  again. 
In  the  fields  of  light  above. 

Caution.— Never  use  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  as  the  subject  of 
a  verb :  thus — 

Betsey  and  me  were  out. 

This  is  incorrect,  because  the  pronoun  "me"  in  the  objective  case 
is  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  w^ere."  It  should  be^  *'  Betsey  and  / 
were  out," 


EXERCISE   38. 

Correct  by  the  caution  the  following  examples  ; 

1.  Suppose  you  and  me  go  a-gunning. 

2.  Ida  is  the  girl  whom  we  supposed  would  read  the  poem. 

3.  Who  will  go  after  a  pail  of  water  ?     Her  and  me  [will  go]. 


120  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

4.  Who  did  the  miscliief  ?     Them  [did]. 

5.  Them  are  the  books  which  we  wanted. 
G.  You  learn  faster  than  me  [learn]. 


AGEEEMENT  OP  THE  VEEB. 

Sule  IL— A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  in 
person:  as— 

1.  1  am  that  merry  wanderer. 

2.  A  bee  among  the  flowers  of  spring  is  one  of  the  most  cheerful 

objects  that  can  be  seen. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

am is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb  (be),  of  the  indicative 

mood,  present  tense,  first  person  singular,  and  agrees 
with  its  subject  "  I,"  according  to  Rule  II. 

is is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  of  the  indicative  mood, 

present  tense,  third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with 
its  subject  "  bee,"  according  to  Rule  II. 

can  be  seen... is  an  irregular  transitive  verb  (see),  of  the  passive  voice, 
potential  mood,  present  tense,  third  person  plural,  and 
agrees  wdth  its  subject  "  that." 


EXERCISE    39. 

.  In  the  following   sentences  parse  the  verbs  according  to  the 
model. 

1.  Letters  paaa  through  the  post-ofRce. 

2.  We  watered  across  the  meadows. 

3.  The  goats  werefeeding  on  the  mountain-side. 

4.  Still  waters  run  deep. 

5.  "Where  have  you  been  ? 

6.  Men  may  come,  and  men  may  go. 

7.  "For  oh !"  s^  the  children,  "  vTe  are  weary, 
And  wc  cannot  run  or  leap." 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    VERB.  121 

Caution.— Words  or  plirases  qualifying  tlie  subject  must  not  affect 
the  number  of  the  verb :  thus— 

The  sound  of  many  voices  reach  my  ear. 

Incorrect:  because  the  verb  "reach"  is  plural,  while  its  subject 
"  sound "  is  singular.  It  should  be,  "  The  sound  of  many  voices 
reaches  my  ear." 

Special  Rules  under  Rule  XL 

Special  Eule  I.— Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by 
AND,  and  conveying  plurality  of  idea,  require  a  verb  in  the  plural :  as— 

1.  Gold  and  iron  are  metals. 

2.  Mary  and  Ida  seem  happy. 

Caution.— "When  two  singular  nouns  convey  the  idea  of  one  person  or 
thing,  or  when  they  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no  (and  are  thus 
taken  separately),  the  verb  must  be  in  the  singular :  as— 

The  soldier  and  statesman  who  secured  our  liberties  were  born  in 
Virginia. 

Incorrect:  because  the  nouns  '^soldier"  and  "statesman"  denote 
one  person  (Washington),  and  hence  should  take  a  verb  in  the  singu- 
lar.    But  "  were  born"  is  plural.     It  should  be  "  was  born." 

Special  Rule  II.— Two  or  more  Subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by 
OR  or  NOR  require  a  verb  in  the  singular:  as— 

1.  Either  the  man  or  his  wife  has  stolen  my  watch  —  (not  ^'•have 

stolen  my  watch"). 

2.  Neither  the  day  nor  the  hour  has  been  appointed—  (not  "  have 

been  appointed"). 

Special  Rule  III.— Collective  nouns  require  a  verb  in  the  singular 
when  the  sense  is  singular,  and  in  the  plural  when  the  sense  is  plural : 

as — 

The  regiment  was  composed  of  many  men. 

Yv^e  think  of  the  regi7nent  (though  composed  of  many  men)  as  form- 
ing one  body.  The  sense  is  singular,  and  hence  the  verb  "was  com- 
posed "  is  singular  also, 

F 


122  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

The  people  wet^e  greatly  displeased. 

We  do  not  think  of  "  people "  as  denoting  one  body :  it  has  the 
sense  of  many  persons,  each  of  whom  "  was  disioleasedy  Hence  the  verb 
is  plural. 


EXERCISE    40. 

Correct  these  examples  by  Eule  II.,  or  the  Special  Rules  or 
Cautions. 

By  Bale  II. 

1.  What  -was  you  doing  and  where  was  you  going? 

2.  Cowardice  and  treachery  generally  goes  together. 

3.  Romulus  and  Remus  w^as  twin  brothers. 

4.  Many  who  was  slain  lies  in  unknown  graves. 

5.  Six  months'  interest  are  due. 

6.  Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rises. 

7.  The  number  of  senators  from  each  of  the  states  are  limited  to  two. 

8.  Nitrogen  and  oxygen  united  forms  the  air  w^hich  we  breathe. 

By  Special  Eule  I.— Caution. 

1.  Each  book  and  each  paper  were  carefully  examined. 

2.  My  friend  and  companion  JiayeL  often  warned  me  of  the  danger. 

3.  No  oppression,  no.  tyrant  reign'here. 

4.  Bread  and  milk  are  good  for  children. 

5.  Every  emotion  and  every  operation  of  the  mind  have  a  corre- 

sponding expression  of  the  countenance. 

6.  For  a  lacrf]:ard  in  love  and  a  dastard  in  war 
AVcre  to  w^ed  the  fair  Ellen  of  brave  Lochinvar. 


By  Special  Eule  II. 

1.  When  sickness  or  misfortune  overtake  us,  the  sincerity  of  friend- 

ship is  tested. 

2.  A  man's  being  rich  or  his  being  poor  do  not  affect  his  character 

for  integrity. 
8.  Neither  the  man  nor  his  son  were  present. 


ADJECTIVES    AND    PARTICIPLES.  123 

Dy  Special  Rule  III.  y 

1.  The  army  were  large. 

2.  The  Board  of  Education  have  passed  the  resolution  unanimously. 

3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  jia^^e  adjourned. 

4.  The  fleet  have  been  scattered  by  the  storm. 


ADJECTIVES  ATO  PAETIOIPLES. 

Rule  III. —  Adjectives  and  participles  modify  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns: as— 

1.  Around  the  fire  one  wintry  night 
The  farmer's  rosy  children  sat. 

2.  The  king,  surrounded  by  his  courtiers,  proceeded  to  the  palace. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

the. =..is  a  limiting  adjective  (pr,  an  article)  modifying  the 

noim  "  fire,"  according  to  Rule  III. 

Ox-. is  a  limiting  adjective  modifying  the  noun  "night," 

according  to  Rule  III. 

wintry is    a    qualifying    adjective    modifying    the    noun 

"  night,"  according  to  Rule  III. 

rosy is  a  qualifying  adjective  modifying  the  noun  "chil- 
dren," according  to  Rule  III. 

surrounded .is  a  participle  n\odifying  the  noun  "king,"  accord- 
ing to  Rule  III. 


EXERCISE  41. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  adjectives  and  participles 
according  to  the  model. 

1.  The  singing  birds  have  come  at  last. 

2.  Upon  at  barren /Steep, 
Above  a  stormy/deep, 

I  saw  an  angel,  watching  the  wild  sea.,  . 
o.  At  church,  with  meek  and' unaficcted  grace^ 
His  looks  adorned -the  venerable  place. 


12'i:  SYNTAX.  [sEC.  Y. 

4.  The  large  black  cat  killed  the  bird. 

5.  The  great,  heavy  iron*  bar  fell  on  the  unfortunate  man,  killing 

liini  instantly. 

6.  The  long  rows  of  quaint  black  piles,  shiny  and  wet  and  weather- 

worn, with  funeral  garlands  of  sea-weed  twisted  about  them 
by  the  late  tide,  might  have  represented  an  unsightly  marine 
cemetery. 

Caution.— The  following  errors  in  the  use  of  adjectives  are  to  be  care- 
fully avoided: 

1.  The  use  of  these  ov  those  for  this  or  that  with  a  singular  noun. 
Say  "  this  sort  of  peoj^le,"  "  that  kind  of  horses  " — not  "  these 
sort  of  people,"  ^^tlwse  kind  of  horses." 

2.  The  use  of  the  pronoun  them  for  the  adjective  those.  Say  "  those 
carriages,"  "  those  apples  " — not "  them  carriages,"  "  the^n  apples." 


Special  Rules  under  Eule  III. 

1.  The  Articles. 

Special  Rule  I. — When  two  or  more  nouns  or  adjectives  refer  to  the 
same  thing,  the  article  is  prefixed  to  the  first  only ;  but  if  they  refer  to 
different  things,  the  article  should  be  repeated  with  each :  thus— 

1.  The  governor  and  commancler-in-chief  has  arrived  (that  is,  one 

person). 

2.  The  governor  and  the  commander-in-chief  have  arrived  (that  is, 

two  persons). 

3.  He  lives  in  a  long  and  narrow  street  (one  street). 

4.  The  rich  and  the  poor  have  a  common  interest  (two  classes). 

2.  Comparison. 

Special  Rule  II.— An  adjective  is  used  in  the  comparative  degree  when 
two  objects  are  compared,  in  the  superlative  when  more  than  two:  as— 

1.  Gold  is  heavier  than  iron. 

2.  Mercury  is  the  heamest  of  metals. 

*  Noun  used  as  an  adjective. 


ADJECTIVES    AND    PARTICIPLES.  125 

3.  Predicate  Adjective. 

Special  Rule  III.— A  predicate  adjective  relates  to  the  subject  of  tlie 
verb:  as— 

1.  Iron  is  hard. 

2.  The  fruit  seems  rijpe. 

Caution.— An  adverb  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  a  predicate  adjec- 
tive: thus— 

The  rose  smells  siceetly;  The  velvet  feels  smoothly. 

The  adverbs  "  sweetly  "  and  "  smoothly  "  are  here  used  incorrect- 
ly for  the  adjectives  sweet  and  smooth. 

The  rose  does  not  really  "  smell "  or  the  velvet  "  feel ;"  what  is 
meant  is  that  the  rose  is  sweet  to  the  smell  or  scent,  and  that  the 
velvet  is  smooth  to  the  touch.  In  each  case  it  is  the  subject,  not 
the  verb,  that  is  to  be  modified,  and  hence  an  adjective,  not  an 
adverb,  is  required. 

NOTE. — The  following  verbs,  each  containing  the  force  of  the  verb 
to  he^  require  to  be  followed  by  a  predicate  adjective  when  the  subject 
is  to  be  modified  : 

1.  smell.  3.  look.  5.  become. 

2.  feel.  4,  taste.  0.  grow. 


EXERCISE    42. 

Correct  the  following  examples : 

1.  Them  apples  are  sour. 

2.  Those  sort  of  people  are  always  complaining. 

3.  Hand  me  them  slates. 

4.  I  am  very  fond  of  those  sort  of  apples. 

5.  The  president,  secretary,  and  treasurer  have  arrived. 

C.  Benjamin  Franklin,  the  philosopher  and  the  statesman,  lived  in 
Philadelphia. 

7.  I  passed  a  man  and  boy  on  my  way  to  town. 

8.  Silk  is  a  fine  and  a  delicate  fibre. 


126  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

9.  This  is  tlic  best  house  of  the  two. 
iO.  Which  is  the  oldest,  William  or  Edwin  ? 

11.  The  lemon  tastes  sourly. 

12.  Miss  Smith  looks  beautifully. 

13.  Mary  sings  sweet. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

Rule  IV.— A  noun  modifying  another  noun  signifying  a  differ- 
ent thing  is  in  the  possessive  case :  as— 

Ladles'  and  children's  shoes  are  sold  here. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

ladies^ ..is  a  common  noun,  of  the  plural  number  and  posses- 

sive  case,  modifying  "  shoes,"  according  to  Rule  IV. 

cMldren's is  a  common  noun,  of  the  plural  number  and  posses- 
sive case,  modifying  "  shoes,"  according  to  Rule  IV. 


EXERCISE    43. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  possessive  nouns  according 
to  the  model. 

1.  John's  book  was  torn. 

2.  My  sister's  hat  w^as  blow^n  into  the  river. 

3.  Have  you  ever  seen  Webster's  Spelling-book  ? 

4.  Richer  by  far  is  the  heart's  adoration. 

5.  Whitney's  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  was  one  of  the  most  ini- 

■portant  ever  made. 

6.  Order  is  heaven's  first  law. 

7.  We  bought  the  shoes  at  Sutherland's.* 

8.  That  book  is  Richard's.f 

9.  Did  the  War  of  1812  happen  in  Adams's]:  or  in  Madison's  ad- 

ministration ? 
10.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's,  thy  God's,  and 
truth's. 

*  Supx^ly  store.  f  Supply  took,  %  Supply  administration. 


APPOSITION.  127 

Caution.— Never  omit  the  sign  of  possessive  in  writing  the  possessive 
case  of  a  noun,  nor  employ  it  in  writing  that  of  a  pronoun :  as— 

Write  loy'^s^  doys^  cJiild^s,  cMldren's — not  hoys^  childs,  childrens.   Write 
Jiei^  itSj  ours,  yours,  tlieirs — not  liefs,  iVs,  our'^s,  your^s,  tJieir^s. 


Special  Rule  under  Rule  IV.  . 

When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  possessive  case  are  connected  and  de- 
note joint  owners  of  the  same  thing,  the  sign  of  possessive  is  suffixed  to 
the  last  noun  only :  as— 

"  Ball  and  Black's  store." 

But  when  they  denote  separate  owners  of  different  things,  the  sign  of 
possessive  is  suffixed  to  each  noun :  as— 

"  Webster's  and  Worcester^ s  dictionaries." 


EXERCISE    44. 

Correct  these  examples  by  Eule  lY.  or  Special  Rule, 

1.  *' Ladle's  and  gentlemens  boots  and  shoes"  was  painted  over 

the  door. 

2.  Men  and  women's  shoes  are  made  here. 

.  3.  The  United  States  was  at  war  during  Madison  and  Lincoln's . 
administrations. 

4.  Did  you  ever  hear  of  Mason's  and  Dixon's  line  ? 

5.  Have  you  read  any  of  Dickens  or  Thackeray's  works  ? 

6.  That  is  Thomas  kite. 

7.  The  blame  is  their's,  not  yours'. 


APPOSITION 

Rule  v.— A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  another  noun  or 
pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case :  as — 

1.  Milton,  the  English  poet,  wrote  Paradise  Lost. 

2.  The  Christians  were  persecuted  by  Nero,  the  infamous  emperor. 


128  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

Model  for  Parsing, 

poet is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  nominative 

case,  in  apposition  with  the  subject  "  Milton." 

emperor... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  objective 
case,  in  apposition  with  "  Nero." 


E-XERCISE    45. 

Parse  the  nouns  in  apposition. 

1.  The  potato,  a  root  much  used  for  food,  was  first  grown  in 

America. 

2.  Franklin,  the  philosopher,  discovered  the  identity  of  lightning 

and  electricity. 

3.  That  useful  animal,  the  camel,  is  found  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

4.  Have  you  studied  the  geography  of  Asia  and  Africa,  two  grand 

divisions  of  the  globe  ? 

5.  Cicero,  the  greatest  orator  among  the  Romans,  was  put  to  death. 

6.  I  did  not  know  him,  the  gentle  boy. 

7.  He  shot  the  albatross,  that  strange  bird. 

8.  I,  John  Barclay,  solemnly  affirm. 

9.  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  declare  this  constitution. 
10.  Do  we  not  admire  those  brave  men,  the  mountaineers  of  Swit- 
zerland 1 


THE  OBJEOTIYE  CASE. 

Rule  VI.~The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  in  the  objective 
case:  as — 

Follow  me.    Who  -killed  the  deer  ? 

Model  for  Parsing. 

me is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 

and  objective  case,  object  of  the  transitive  verb  "  follow," 

according  to  Rule  VI. 
deer is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  objective 

case,  object  of  the  transitive  verb  "  killed,"  according  to 

Rule  VI. 


OBJECTIVE    CASE.  129 

EXERCISE    46. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  objects  according  to  the 
model. 

1.  Fulton  invented  the  steamboat, 

2.  We  have  just  received  our  presents, 

3.  Me  he  restored,  and  him  he  hanged. 

4.  They  saw  us  as  we  entered  the  carriage. 

5.  Who  called  her? 

6.  Whom^did  she  call  ? 

7.  She  sang  the  song  most  beautifully^ 

Caution.— Hever  use  a  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case  as  the  object  of 
a  transitive  verb :  as— - 

Who  did  you  see  at  church  ? 

This  is  incorrect :  because  the  pronoun  "  who  "  in  the  nominative 
case  is  made  the  object  of  the  verb  "did  see."  It  should  be,  ^^Whom 
did  you  see  ?"  

Special  Rules  under  Rule  VI. 

Special  Eule  I.— The  indirect  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  in 
the  objective  case  without  a  preposition :  as— 

•  Give  me  a  book. 

The  indirect  object  shows  that  to  or  for  w^hich  anything  is  or  is 
done. 

Special  Rule  II.— The  infinitives  or  participles  of  transitive  verbs 
may  govern  objects  in  the  objective  case :  as— 

1.  To  love  our  enemies  is  a  Christian  duty. 

2.  The  thief,  seeing  the  officer,  ran  away. 


EXERCISE   47. 

Correct  these  examples  by  the  Caution : 

1.  The  teacher  asked  my  sister  and  I  to  come. 

2.  Is  this  the  boy  who  you  w^anted  ? 
8.  Who  did  she  marry  ? 

F  2 


130  SYNTAX.  [SEC.V. 

4.  Tliey  that  honor  me  I  "will  honor. 

5.  She  told  somebody,  but  I  don't  know  who. 

6.  They  who  we  injure  we  dislike. 


COMPLEMENT. 


Rule  VIL  — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of 
an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case:  as— 

1.  Caesar  was  a  great  general  [nom.  case]. 

2.  The  girl  becomes  a  woman  [nom.  case]. 

3.  Henry  was  chosen  captain  [nom.  case]. 

4.  It  proved  to  be  she  [nom.  case]. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

general  (sentence  l)...is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and 
nominative  case,  complement  of  the  intransi- 
tive verb  "  was,"  according  to  Rule  YII. 

captain  (sentence  3)... is  a  commonnoun,  of  the  singular  number  and 
nominative  case,  complement  of  the  passive 
verb  "  was  chosen,"  according  to  Rule  YII. 

she  (sentence  4) is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  feminine  gender,  and  nomina- 
tive case,  complement  of  the  intransitive  verb 
"  to  be,"  according  to  Rule  VII. 


EXERCISE    48. 
a. 

.     In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  complements  according  to 
the  model. 

1.  Gold  and  silver  are  precious  metals. 

2.  Mecca  is  a  holy  city. 

3.  John  was  called  the  beloved  disciple. 

4.  The  boy  seems  a  scholar. 

5.  Study  was  always  his  delight. 
^6.  The  food  appears  to  be  poison. 


ADVERBS.  131 

7.  If  I  were  she  I  would  improve  my  opportunities. 

8.  Bo  you  think  it  was  she  ? 

9.  Men  are  but  children  of  a  larger  growth. 

1 10.  Webster  and  Ashburton  were  appointed  commissioners  to  settle 
the  boundary  question. 

11.  John  proved  a  worthy  successor  to  his  brother. 

12.  Some  mossy  bank  my  couch  must  be, 
Some  rustling  oak*  my  canopy. 

b. 

Correct  the  violations  of  Rule  YII. 

1.  Who  struck  the  bell  ?    It  was  hkq^ 

2.  It  is  them  that  you  mean,  not  us. 

3.  It  could  not  possibly  have  been  &6j:^ 

4.  I  took  it  to  be^e. 

5.  Wh<^  do  you  imagine  him  to  be  ? 

6.  It  wasTika  w^ho  issued  the  order,  although  the  people  for  a  long 

time  disbelieved  it  to  be  ^. 

7.  I  should  try  to  do  better  if  I  W5re  Hmi, 


ADYEEBS. 

Rule  VIIL  — An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an- 
other adverb :  as— 

1.  Merrily^  merrily  went  the  bark. 

2.  The  frost  is  intensely  severe. 

3.  Pianists  move  their  fingers  very  quickly. 

Model  for  Parsing, 

merrily is  an  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  "went,"  according 

to  Rule  VIIL 

intensely is  an  adverb,  modifying  the  adjective  "severe,"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  YIII. 

very is  an  adverb,  modifying  the  adverb  "quickly,"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  VIII. 

*  Supply  must  le. 


132  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

EXERCISE    49. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  tlie  adverbs  according  to  tlio 
model. 

1.  The  very  fairest  flowers  usually  wither  most  quickly. 

2.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

3.  The  pupil  has  answered  very  w^ell. 

4.  When  are  you  coming  ? 

5.  We  will  know  our  lesson  better  to-morrow^ 

6.  She  loved  not  wisely,  but  too  well. 

Caution  I.— Never  use  two  negatives  to  express  a  negation:  thus— 

I  have  not  been  nowhere. 
This  is  incorrect :  *'  not  nowhere  "  implies  somewhere.     It  should  be 
"  I  have  been  nowliere^''  or  ^'  I  have  not  been  anywhere.'''' 

Caution  II.— Never  use  an  adjective  where  an  adverb  is  reqnked: 
thus — 

1.  The  army  marched  rapidly — (not  rapid). 

2.  The  horse  trots  iDell — (not  good). 

3.  The  bird  sings  leautifully — (not  leautiful). 


Special  Rules  under  Rule  VIII. 

Special  Rule  I.  —  Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  in  a  sentence  as  to 
qualify  the  word  intended :  thus— 

1.  He  came  to  see  me  only  once. 

2.  He  only  came  to  see  me  once. 

These  two  sentences  have  different  meanings  according  as  the  ad- 
verb *'  only  "  is  placed  so  as  to  qualify  once  or  came.  The  first  means, 
"  He  came  to  see  me  only  once,"  not  oftener.  The  second  means, "  He 
only  came  to  see  me  once  " — he  did  nothing  else. 

Special  Rule  II.— A  noun  denoting  direction,  time,  distance,  value,  etc., 
is  in  the  objective  case  vdthout  a  preposition :  thus— 

1.  The  scholars  have  gone  home — (modifying  "  have  gone"). 


PRONOUNS.  133 

2.  That  girl  is  fifteen  years  old — (modifying  ^'  old"). 

3.  There  is  a  pole  twenty /jd^  high — (modifying  ''  high"). 

NOTE. — A  noun  thus  used  is  called  the  objective  adverbial. 


EXERCISE    50. 

Correct  the  violations  of  Eule  VIII.  ' 

1.  I  don't  like  geography  nohow. 
2. 1  did  not  get  no  dinner  to-day. 

3.  Can  your  father  not  do  no  work  ? 

4.  He  did  not  say  nothing.  - 

5.  Pauline  writes  elegant. 
C.  Joseph  reads  very  slow. 

7.  The  wounded  man  began  to  rapidly  fail. 

8.  He  was  an  uncommon  tall  man,  with  an  exceeding  long  neck. 

9.  I  wish  you  to  deeply  ponder  this,  and  to  seriously  consider  it. 
10.  Speak  distinct,  write  careful,  and  spell  correct. 


PEONOOTS. 

Rule  IX.— A  pronoun  agrees  in  person,  gender,  and  number 
with  its  antecedent  or  the  word  that  it  represents:  thus— 

1.  The  lady  went  to  Europe  in  spring,  but  she  has  returned. 

2.  The  lady  w^ho  went  to  Europe  has  returned. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

she is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 

and  feminine  gender,  to  agree  with  the  noun  "  lady,"  which 

it  represents,  according  to  Rule  IX. 
who IS  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 

and  feminine  gender,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent  "  lady," 

according  to  Rule  IX. 


134  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

EXERCISE    51. 

Parse  tlie  pronouns  for  person,  gender,  and  number.* 

1.  The  snow  fell  fast,  but  it  melted  as  fast. 

2.  The  French  retreated,  leaving  their  wounded  behind  them. 

3.  My  sister  and  I  had  scarcely  reached  our  t  home  when  we  f  set 

off  again. 

4.  Some  plants  are  peculiar  to  certain  districts :  they  are  always 

found  in  them. 

5.  The  man  who  found  the  money  restored  it. 

6.  The  girls  who  were  caught  in  the  shower  took  refuge  in  the 

cave. 

7.  This  is  the  same  book  that  I  saw  yesterday. 

8.  The  sea,  which  washed  the  shore,  was  covered  with  wrecks. 

9.  I  that  denied  thee  gold  will  give  my  heart. 

Caution.— Do  not  use  a  personal  pronoun  as  subject  of  a  verb  when  the 
verb  has  already  a  noun  for  its  subject:  thus— 

Say  "Richard  went  to  school" — not  "  Richard  lie  went  to  school." 

NOTE. — In  poetry  both  nouns  and  pronouns  are  often  used:  as, 
"The  deck  it  was  their  field  of  fame."  But  in  prose  we  should  say, 
"  The  deck  was  their  field  of  fame." 


Special  Rules  under  Rule  IX. 

Special  Rule  I.— When  a  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  two  or  more 
singular  nouns,  it  must  be  singular  or  plural,  according  as  the  verb  agree- 
ing with  the  nouns  is  singular  or  plural;  thus— 

1.  Webster  and  Clay  were  distinguished  for  their  oratory. 

2.  The  celebrated  painter  and  sculptor  died  before  Tie  was  fifty 

years  of  age. 

*  The  case  of  a  pronoun  depends  on  its  use  in  the  sentence. 

t  In  sentences  of  this  nature,  the  teacher  has  simply  to  ask  what  pronoun 
could  be  substituted  for  "my  sister  and  I"  to  enable  the  pupil  to  observe  the? 
usage.    No  special  rule  is  required. 


PRONOUNS.  135 

3.  Every  act  and  every  thouglit  has  its  effect  on  our  character. 

4.  Every  boy  and  girl  must  take  his  or  Tier  own  seat.* 

5.  Will  Jennie  or  Hattie  sing  us  her  favorite  song  ? 

Special  Rule  II.— A  collective  «oiin  is  represented  by  a  pronoun  in 
the  singular  number  when  the  meaning  of  the  noun  is  singular,  but  by  a 
plural  pronoun  when  the  meaning  is  plural :  thus— 

1.  Congress  will  hold  its  session  till  March. 

2.  The  peoi)le  were  divided  in  their  opinion. 

Special  Rule  III.— The  relative  pronoun  that  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  who  or  which  in  the  following  cases ; 

1.  After  the  interrogative  pronoun  who:  as,  "Who  that  heard  it 

will  believe  it  ?" 

2.  After  an  antecedent  preceded  by  the  adjectives  some,  same,  any : 

as,  "  Some  people  that  were  there  said  so ;"  "  This  is  the 
same  man  that  you  saw ;"  ^'  Do  you  know  any  person  that 
thinks  so  ?" 

3.  After  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree :  as,  "  These  apples 

are  the  best  that  can  be  found." 

4.  After  two  antecedents,  one  requiring  who  and  the  other  which : 

as,  "  The  boy  and  the  clog  that  you  saw  are  gone." 

5.  Whenever  we  wish  to  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  antecedent. 

KOTE. — When  who  or  which  means  "  and  he,"  "  and  it,"  etc.,  it  in- 
troduces an  additional  or  explanatory  statement;  that  introduces  a 
clause  without  which  the  antecedent  is  incomplete,  and  hence  is  re- 
strictke.    Thus — 

I  heard  the  n^ws  from  my  friend,  who  [and  he]  heard  it  from  the 
passengers  that  [restrictive]  arrived  last  night. 

Special  Rule  IV.— In  the  position  of  singular  pronouns  of  different 

*  In  sentences  like  this,  the  selection  of  pronouns  is  often  difficult.  We 
must  not  use  the  plural  pronoun  their,  since  the  adjective  ''  every  "  implies 
ihat  each  one  is  taken  separately,  and  ''his  "  must  be  represented  by  a  singular 
pronoun.  To  "his  or  her  own  seat,"  though  correct,  is  very  formal;  and  per- 
haps the  best  way  is  to  change  the  form  of  expression  and  say :  "All  boys  and 
girls  must  take  their  own  seats." 


136  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V, 

persons,  the  second  (you)  precedes  the  others  (he,  she,  it,  i)  ;  and  the 
third  (he,  she,  it)  precedes  the  first  (i) :  as— 
^'You  and  he  will  go  ;"  "  He  and  I  will  go." 

NOTE. — A  noun  has  the  same  place  as  a  third  personal  pronoun ; 
as,  "  He  says  he  saw  either  my  cousin  or  me^ 

With  the  plural  pronouns,  we  has  the  first  place,  yotc  the  second,  and 
they  the  third :  as,  '^  We  and  they  start  to-morrow."  . 


EXERCISE    52. 

Correct  the  violations  of  Kule  IX. 

1.  Every  man  is  the  architect  of  thek  own  fortune. 

2.  The  army  dragged  themselves  along  through  the  mud. 

3.  Every  boy  and  girl  must  learn  their  lesson. 

4.  The  dog  is  a  faithful  animal  when  their  master  is  kind  to  them. 

5.  Anybody  in  their  senses  would  have  known  better. 

G.  A  Franklin  or  a  Jefferson  renders  great  service  to  their  country. 

7.  I  would  have  told  Mm  and  you  a  piece  of  news  if  you  had 

stayed. 

8.  Every  passenger  must  first  buy  their  ticket. 

9.  Richard  he  went  to  school. 

10.  Eva  she  forgot  her  lunch-basket. 

11.  The  dog  31  ran  down  the  street. 

12.  An  invitation  was  sent  to  me  and  George. 


OBJECTIVE  AETEE  A  PEEPOSITIOK 

Rule  X.  — I.  A  preposition  joins  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  some 
other  word. 

11.  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  depending  on  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

I  had  a  little  daughter. 

And  she  was  given  to  me 
To  lead  me  gently  backward 

To  the  heavenly  Father's  knee. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  137 

Model  for  Parsing. 

me is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  tlie  first  person,  singular  number, 

and  objective  case,  depending  on  the  preposition  "  to,'^ 

according  to  Rule  X. 
knee is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  objective 

case,  depending  on  the  preposition  "  to,"  according  to 

Rule  X. 

Caution.— When  a  pronoun  is  remote  from  the  preposition  on  which 
it  depends,  care  should  be  taken  that  it  has  the  proper  objective  form: 

,  thus — 

Who  does  this  slate  belong  to  f 

This  is  incorrect:  the  pronoun  "who"  in  the  nominative  depends 
on  the  preposition  "  to;"  but  according  to  Rule  X.  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
depending  on  a  preposition  should  be  in  the  objective  case.  Hence  it 
should  be  "  Whom  does  this  slate  belong  to  ?"  or  "  To  ichom  does  this 
slate  belon/?  ?" 


EXERCISE    53. 

Correct  the  violations  of  Rule  X. 

1.  Between  you  and  I  all  that  glitters  is  not  gold. 

2.  Come  along  with  William  and  I. 

3.  So  you  must  ride 

On  horseback  after  we» 

4.  He  is  a  friend  who  I  am  greatly  indebted  to. 

5.  Who  did  you  give  the  apple  to  ? 

6.  We  then  saw  that  it  was  no  other  but  heu 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


Rule  XL  —  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  proposi- 
tions: as— 

Mars  and  Jupiter  are  planets — (joining  two  ^vords). 


138  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

Kor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood  was  he— (joining  two  phrases). 
He  is  poor,  hit  he  is  honest — (joining  two  propositions). 

Model  for  Parsing. 

and is  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  nouns  ''Mars"  and  "Jupi- 
ter," according  to  Rule  XI. 

but is  a  conjunction,  connecting  the  propositions  "  He  is  poor" 

and  "  He  is  honest,"  according  to  Rule  XI. 


EXERCISE    54. 

In  the  following  sentences  parse  the  conjunctions  according  to 
the  model. 

1.  The  lion  and  the  lamb  shall  lie  down  together,  and  a  little 

child  shall  lead  them. 

2.  He  departed  from  home,  but  he  soon  returned. 

3.  He  forsook  his  home  and  his  friends. 

4.  Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 
The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray. 

5.  The  trees  have  lost  their  foliage,  because  autumn  has  come. 

6.  Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 


NOMnrATIYE  INDEPETOE^T  AND  ABSOLUTE.  -  THE  HT- 
"^^EEJEOTIOK 

Rule  XXL  — I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case  depends  on  no 
other  word  is  put  in  the  nominative  case. 

II.  The  interjection  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  sentence. 

I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  is  used  independently  when  it  has  no 
grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  There  are  two 
principal  uses  of  this  construction : 

1.  In  naming  a  person  or  thing  addressed  :  as — 
Plato,  thou  reasonest  well.  * 
O  thoUy  who  art  with  glory  and  majesty  crowned! 


ADDITIONAL    RULES.  139 

2.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  joined  with  a  participle  to  form 
a  phrase  not  grammatically  connected  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence : 
as — 

The  Siorm  having  ceased  [phrase  independent],  we  departed. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

Plato... is  a  proper  noun,  in  the  nominative  case  independent,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XII. 

storm... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  nominative 
case,  nominative  absolute  (with  the  participle  "having 
ceased"),  according  to  Rule  XII. 

0 is  an  interjection,  and  has  no  grammatical  relation  to  the 

other  parts  of  the  sentence,  according  to  Rule  XII. 


EXERCISE    55. 

Parse  the  nouns  in  the  nominative  independent  or  absolute. 

1.  Begone,  dull  care,  for  thou  and  I  can  never  agree. 

2.  False  wizard,  aV aunt ! 

3.  The  president  having  given  his  assent,  the  bill  became  a  law., 

4.  O  liberty,  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name. 

5.  The  old  oaken  bucket,  the  iron-bound  bucket, 
The  moss-covered  bucket  that  hangs  in  the  well ! 

G.  Our  task  being  finished,  we  were  allowed  to  play. 
7.  Listen,  my  children,  and  you  shall  hear 
^^;^j0f  the  midnight  ride  of  Paul  Revere. 


ADDITIONAL  EULES. 
I.  Rule  for  the  Infinitives. 

An  infinitive  may  he  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverbj  and 
when  dependent  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits. 


140  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  To  walk  [or  walking']  is  healthy— [used  as  a  noun  and  subject 
of  the  verb  "  is  "]. 

2.  I  like  to  walk — [used  as  a  noun  and  object  of  the  verb  "like  "]. 

3.  A  time  to  laugh — [used  as  an  adjective  and  governed  by  the 
noun  "time,"  which  it  limits]. 

4.  Permission  to  speak — [used  as  an  adjective  and  governed  by  the 
noun  "permission,"  which  it  limits]. 

5.  I  have  come  to  see  you — [used  as  an  adverb  and  governed  by  the 
verb  "  have  come,"  which  it  limits]. 

6.  Wonderful  to  relate— {yx^Qdi  as  an  adverb  and  governed  by  the 
adjective  "  wonderful,"  which  it  limits]. 

II.  Rule  for  the  Subjunctive  Mood. 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  a  subordinate  proposition  when  both 
contingency  and  futurity  are  expressed,  or  when  the  contrary  fact  is  im- 
plied: as— 

1.  If  he  continue  to  study,  he  will  improve. 

2.  If  he  were  guilty  [as  he  is  not]^  he  would  suffer. 


NOTES. 


I.  When  a  condition  is  assumed  as  real  the  statement  is  made  by 
means  of  the  indicative :  as — 

1.  If  he  Jias  money  [as  it  is  assumed  he  has],  he  keeps  it. 

2.  If  he  is  guilty  [as  he  probably  is],  he  will  suffer. 

II.  A  good  practical  rule  with  respect  to  the  use  of  the  subjunctive 
is  that  it  is  to  be  employed  iclienever  a  potential  or  a  future  auxiliary  is 
implied:  thus — 

1.  Though  he  [may]  slay  me,  I  will  trust  in  him. 

2.  Go  thy  way  lest  a  worse  fate  [shoidd]  befall  thee. 

3.  If  it  were  [shoidd  be]  done,  when  'tis  done,  then  Hwere  [would  be] 
well  it  were  [should  be]  done  quickly. 


EXAMPLES    OF    FALSE    SYNTAX    FOR    CORRECTION.  141 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXAMPLES    OF   FALSE   SYNTAX   FOR 
CORRECTION. 


1.  The  pyramids  of  Egypt  latts-  stood  thousands  of  years. 

2.  Neither  the  time  nor  tlie  place  of  Homer's  birth  are  known. 

3.  My  books  was  bought  at  Brown's  the  bookseller's. 

4.  The  hunter  shot  an  owl,  squirrel, .eagle,  and, quail. 

5.  An  honest  and  aii  honorable  man  is  always  respected. 

6.  This  book  is  the  largest  and  costliest  of  the  two. 

7.  Select  either  of  the  three  books  on  the  table. 

8.  I,,  he,  and  you  are  all  going  there  together. 

9.  Vf^ho  sliall  we  invite  to  our  party  next  week  ? 

10.  I  think  it  was  neither  Mm  nor  -h«r  who  did  it. 

11.  They  say  they  will  not  give  me  »o  more  money, 

12.  You  neither  care  for  us  ^^jk.  any  body  else. 

13.  Wisdom  and  prudence  dwell  with  the  lowly  man. 

14.  Neither  of  the  boys  were  able  to  pass  examination, 

15.  If  I  wfts-him  I  would  accept  the  office. 

16.  He  hasn't -got-^io  money  to  pay  for  it -with. 

17.  Avarice  is  one  of  those  passions  whicli^  never  satisfied. 

18.  The  news iraive  just  been  received  by  telegraph. 

19.  Much  depends  on  a~man  doing  right. 
20.-^3^  the  visitors  from  the  city  arrived  yet  ? 

II. 

1.  The  teacher  told  every  scholar  to  bring  their  books. 

2.  Every  boy  and  every  girl  were  at  school  in  season. 

3.  Each  one  of  us  hftre  as  much  as  they  can  do. 

4.  She  sung  very  fine  and  looked  very  -^pfettily. 

5.  We  should  help  ihem  friends  which  help  us. 

6.  Who  did  you  give  the  apple  to  ? 

7.  London  is  larger  than  any  city  in  the  world. 

8.  You  cannot  be  he?. 

9.  Father  brought  some  candy  to  divide  between  us-«}i- 
10.  Who  did  you  say  you  went  to  visit  ? 


142  SYNTAX.  [sec.  V. 

11.  He  is  the  richest  man -who  I  know  of. 

12.  The  laclie's  parlor  is  finer  than  the  gentlemens'. 

13.  It  is  more  hard  to  work  than  play. 

14.  Believe  me,  I'll  never  do  so  no  more  again. 

15.  "Will  we  have  a  vacation  next  week. 

16.  The  number  of  inhabitants  exceed  forty  million. 

17.  I  saw  four  horses,  but  did  not  buy  either  of  them. 

18.  Grammar  leanas  us  to  write  correct  and  speak  proper. 

19.  Was  you  living  there  at  that  time. 

20.  I  will  drown,  and  nobody  shall  help  me. 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES. 

From  each  of  the  following  sets  of  subjects  select  the  subject 
which  suits  you  best,  and  write  a  composition  about  it : 

FIRST   SET. 

1.  Housekeeping.       3.  A  husking.  5.  Making  wine. 

2.  Haying-time.         4.  Making  cider.       6.  Picking  cotton. 

SECOND   SET. 

Write  some  anecdote  that  you  have  read  about  any  one  of  the 
following  animals : 

1.  The  monkey.         3.  The  bear.  5.  The  fox. 

2.  The  wolf.  4.  The  dog.  6.  The  lion. 

THIRD   SET. 

Write  from  memory  a  short  sketch  of  one  of  the  following 
stories : 

1.  Bluebeard.  3.  Cinderella.  5.  Kobinson  Crusoe. 

2.  Robin  Hood.         4.  Arabian  Nights.    6.  Jack  the  Giant  Killer. 

FOURTH   SET. 

Write  a  short  description,  telling  how  the  following  products  are 
cultivated : 

1.  Wheat.  8.  Cotton.  5.  The  grape.        7.  Hops. 

2.  Corn.  4.  Tobacco.  6.  Flax.  8.  Sugar. 


COMPOSITION    EXERCISES.  143 

FIFTH   SET. 

1.  Story  of  a  boy  and  a  purse  of  gold. 

2.  Story  of  a  hunter  and  a  bear. 

3.  Story  of  a  girl  and  her  lamb. 

SIXTH   SET. 

1.  Autobiography  of  a  ring. 

2.  Autobiography  of  a  cat. 
8.  Autobiography  of  a  knife. 
4.  Autobiography  of  a  mouse. 

SEVENTH  SET. 

1.  A  ghost  story.  2.  A  witch  story. 

EIGHTH  SET. 

On  a  subject  chosen  by  yourself,  write  the  best  composition  you 
can,  as  a  specimen  of  your  ability  to  write  good  English.  After  you 
have  made  the  first  draft,  go  carefully  over  it,  correcting  errors  and 
improving  your  sentences.  Then  copy  the  whole  in  your  best  style 
of  penmanship. 


SECTION   VI. 
ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS. 


LV— DEFINITIONS. 

I.  Subject  and  Predicate. 

I.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  the  parts,  or  ele- 
9nentSy  of  which  it  is  composed. . 

II.  Synthesis  is  the  process  of  constructing  sentences  from  their 
elements. 

III.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  a  complete 
thought. 

IV.  The  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  subject  and  the 
predicate. 

The  sifjjjeCt  represents  that  of  which  something  is  stated:  as, 
^'^  Birds  sing." 

The  predicate  tells  what  is  stated  of  the  subject ;  as,  "  Birds  singy 

y.  An  adjunct,  or  modifier,  is  a  word  (or  words)  added  to  the 
subject  or  predicate  to  limit  or  modify  its  meaning :  as,  *'  The  hie/ 
fire  burns  brightly^ 

VI.  The  simple  subject  is  the  subject  without  adjuncts:  as, 
''Fire  burns.'' 

YII.  The  complete  subject  is  the  simple  subject  with  its  ad- 
juncts :  as,  "  The  big  fire  burns." 


SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE.  14:5 

VIII.  The  simple  predicate  is  the  predicate  verb :  as,  "  The  big 
fire  burns, ''^ 

IX.  The  complete  predicate  is  the  predicate  verb  with  its  ad- 
juncts: as,  "The  big  fire  burns  5n^A%." 

X.  A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  with  a  predi- 
cate, forming  either  an  independent  or  a  dependent  statement. 
Thus— 

1.  Life  is  but  an  empty  dream — [independent  statement]. 

2.  Tell  me  not  that  life  is  hut  an  empty  dream — [^'  that  life  is  but  an 
empty  dream"  a  dependent  statement,  because  the  object  of  the 
verb  "tell"].  


EXERCISE    56. 
a. 

In  the  following  sentences  select,  first  the  simple  subjects  and 
predicates,  and  then  the  complete  subjects  and  predicates. 

1.  The  army  advanced  rapidly. 

2.  Great  men  are  rare. 

3.  The  huntsman's  horn  awoke  the  echoes. 

4.  Many  friends  of  my  youth  have  perished. 

5.  The  little  bird's  song  is  sweet. 

6.  Franklin,  the  great  philosopher,  was  an  American. 

7.  The  bright  fire  soon  w^armed  our  hands. 

8.  The  garden  has  many  beautiful  flowers  in  full  blossom. 

9.  We  must  not  eat  unripe  fruit. 

10.  The  apples  will  be  ripe  soon. 

11.  Where  has  your  brother  gone  ? 

12.  How  cool  the  air  is ! 

b. 
In  the  following  sentences,  expand  the  subject  by  means  of  ad- 
jective words,  adjective  phrases,  or  both. 

Model  :  "  The  bridge  spans  the  river."    Enlarged— ^^  The  great  iron  bridge, 
built  by  a  skilful  engineer,  spans  the  river." 

1.  The  bridge  spans  the  river. 

G 


146  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

2.  The  mechanic  repaired  the  engine. 

3.  Snakes  infest  the  country. 

4.  Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost, 

5.  Birds  fly. 

6.  The  fox  stole  the  hens. 

7.  Bees  gather  honey. 
'  8.  Music  soothes. 

9.  The  fire  burns. 
10.  The  day  is  passed. 
11..  Humboldt  is  dead. 
12.  Books  please  me. 

c. 
In  the  following  sentences,  expand  the  predicate  by  means  of 
adverbs,  adverbial  phrases,  or  both. 

Model:  "We  go  to  swim."     Enlarged— ^'•^^q  often  go  to  swim  in  the 
river." 

1.  We  go  to  swim. 

2.  The  moon  shines. 

3.  They  learn  their  lessons. 

4.  The  American  soldiers  fought. 

5.  James  wrote  a  letter. 

6.  It  is  pleasant  to  watch  the  stars. 

7.  We  took  shelter. 
.    8.  The  fire  burns. 

9.  Bees  gather  honey. 

10.  The  microscope  shows  us  animalcules. 

11.  Birds  fly. 

12.  Fishes  swim. 


II.  Elements  of  the  Sentence. 

.     I.  A  phrase  is  a  combination  of  related  words  forming  an  ele- 
ment of  a  sentence. 

-^    1.  A  phrase  is  generally  introduced  by  a  preposition,  a  participle, 
or  an  infinitive :  as — 


SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE.  147 

The  study  of  history  improves  the  mind — [phrase  introduced  by  a 
preposition]. 

The  balloon,  filled  with  gas,  floated  up  in  the  air — [phrase  intro- 
duced by  a  participle]. 

To  forget  an  injury  is  the  mark  of  a  noble  mind — [phrase  intro- 
duced by  an  infinitive]. 
y  2.  A  phrase  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 
When  equivalent  to  a  noun  it  is  called  a  noun  phrase;  when 
equivalent  to  an  adjective,  an  adjective  phrase;  when  equivalent 
to  an  adverb,  an  adverlial  phrase. 

^  II.  A  clause  is  a  dependent,  or  subordinate,  proposition,  intro- 
duced by  a  connective :  as — 

1.  He  will  learn  if  you  teach  him. 

2.  I  shall  be  ready  when  you  call. 

X    III.  Sentences  are  classed  as  simple,  complex,  and  compound, 

\    A  simple  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  proposition :  as— 
The  earth  rotates. 

>    A  complex  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  (or  principal) 
proposition  and  one  or  more  clauses :  as — 

We  succeed  [principal  statement]  because  we  persevere  [clause]. 

X  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  independent  prop- 
ositions :  as — 

'    The  fields  are  fragrant  and  the  woods  are  green. 

IV.  According  to  their  use,  sentences  are  classed  as  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclamative. 

For  the  definition  of  these  terms,  sec  page  23. 


148  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

LYI— ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Simple  Sentence. 

I.  The  simple  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  consists  of  a  word  or 
a  phrase. 

r  Gold  is  a  metal — [noun  subject]. 
Word  Subject <  We  hear  the  music — [pronoun  subject]. 

(  To  walk  is  good  exercise — [infinitive  subject]. 

r  Where  to  go  is  the  question. 
Phrase  Subject...  ■<  Fishing  for  trout  is  fine  fun. 

(  To  die  for  one'^s  country/  is  sweet. 

IL  The  simple  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  may  be  modified 
by  adjective  words  or  adjective  phrases, 

in.  An  adjective  word  may  be — 

1.  An  adjective :  as,  "  6n^A^  skies ;"  "some  books." 

2.  A  noun  in  the  possessive  case :  as, "  the  huntsman's  horn ;" 
"  the  sun''s  rays." 

3.  A  noun  in  apposition  :  as,  "  Franklin,  the  philosopher  ;^^  "Alex- 
ander, the  coppersmith.^^ 

lY.  An  adjective  phrase  may  be  introduced  by  a  preposition  or  a 
participle:  as — 

1.  The  love  [subject]  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

2.  Exhausted  by  fatigue  j  we  [subject]  lay  down  to  rest. 

Y.  The  simple  predicate  of  a  simple  sentence  may  take  an  object 
or  other  complement  (predicate  nominative  or  predicate  adjective) ; 
as — 

1.  Carpenters  build  houses — [object]. 

2.  We  ARE  scholars — [complement  or  predicate  nominative]. 

3.  Glass  IS  transparent — [complement  or  predicate  adjective] 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  149 

VI.  The  simple  predicate  of  a  simple  sentence  may  be  modified 
by- 

1.  An  adverb :  as,  "The  horse  ran  swiftly ^ 

2.  An  adverbial  phrase :  as,  "  Great  men  lived  during  the  Revo- 
lution.'''' 


2.  Directions  for  the  Analysis  of  Simple  Sentences, 

1.  Name  the  simple  subject. 

2.  Name  the  simple  predicate. 

3.  Name  the  adjuncts  or  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

4.  Name  the  complete  subject. 

5.  Name  the  adjuncts  or  modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

6.  Name  the  complete  predicate. 


NOTES. 

I.  When  a  verb  has  an  object  or  other  complement,  the  predicate 
verb  is  first  to  be  mentioned,  then  the  object  or  complement  with  its 
adjuncts  (if  any). 

II.  A  noun  used  as  the  object  or  complement  of  a  verb  may  itself 
be  modified  by  an  adjective  word  or  phrase. 

III.  A  subject  having  no  adjuncts  may  be  called  the  subject,  sim- 
ple and  complete.     So  with  the  predicate. 


Models  for  Analyzing  Simple  Sentences. 

1.  America^  called  the  New  World,  was  discovered  in  1492. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  simple  subject  is 
"  America."  The  simple  predicate  is  "  was  discovered."  The  simple 
subject  is  modified  by  "  called  tlie  New  World,"  an  adjective  phrase. 
The  complete  subject  is  "  America,  called  the  New  World." 

The  simple  predicate  is  modified  by  "  in  1492,"  an  adverbial  phrase. 
The  complete  predicate  is  "  was  discovered  in  1492." 


160  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC. 

2.  You  have  prepared  your  lessons  carefully. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  subject,  simple  and 
complete,  is  "  you."  The  simple  predicate  is  "  have  prepared,"  which 
has  for  its  object  "lessons."  "Lessons"  is  modified  by  the  adjunct 
"  your." 

The  simple  predicate  is  modified  by  "  carefully,"  an  adverb.  The 
complete  predicate  is  "  have  prepared  your  lessons  carefully." 

3.  Will  you  walk  to-day  ? 

This  is  a  simple  interrogative  sentence.  The  subject,  simple  and 
complete,  is  "  you."     The  simple  predicate  is  "  will  walk." 

The  simple  predicate  is  modified  by  the  adverb  "  to-day."  The 
complete  predicate  is  "  will  walk  to-day." 

4.  Bring  that  large  volume  here. 

This  is  a  simple  imperative  sentence.  The  subject,  simple  and 
complete,  is  you  (understood).  The  simple  predicate  is  "  bring,"  which 
has  for  its  object  "volume."  "Volume"  is  modified  by  the  adjuncts 
"that"  and  "large." 

The  simple  predicate  is  modified  by  the  adverb  "  here."  The  com- 
plete predicate  is  "  bring  that  large  volume  here." 


EXERCISE    57. 

Analyze  tlie  following  simple  sentences : 

1.  The  sun  shines. 

2.  Bees  gather  honey. 

3.  The  fire  burns. 

4.  The  big  fire  burns  brightly  to-night. 

5.  The  study  of  history  improves  the  mind. 

6.  A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss. 

7.  Sailing  over  the  Atlantic,  Cabot  reached  Labrador. 

8.  Under  a  spreading  chestnut-tree  the  village  smithy  stands. 

9.  All  men  are  mortal. 

W,  Where  are  you  going  this  summer?* 

*  Call  "this  summer"  an  adverbial  phrase. 


SYNTHESIS    OF   THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  151 

11.  The  hero's  harp  is  silent. 

12.  Milton,  the  English  poet,  wrote  Paradise  Lost. 

13.  Light  the  gas. 

14.  The  stars  are  worlds. 

15.  Whitney,  the  inventor  of  the  cotton-gin,  was  born  in  New 

England. 

16.  Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust  ? 

17.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 

18.  The  sloth  in  its  wild  state  passes  its  life  on  trees. 

19.  The  Egyptians  embalmed  the  bodies  of  their  dead. 

20.  Some  birds  of  prey,  having  secured  their  victim,  fly  with  it  very 

swiftly  to  their  nests. 

21.  Sound  the  loud  timbrel  o'er  Egypt's  dark  sea. 


LVII.— SYNTHESIS  OF  THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

1.  Punctuation. 
The  comma  and  the  terminal  mark  (period,  point  of  interroga- 
tion, and  point  of  exclamation)  are  the  only  marks  used  in  punc- 
tuating simple  sentences. 

EuLE  I. — Words  of  the  same  class  in  a  series,  taken  individually  or  in 
pairs,  are  set  off  by  commas :  thus— 

1.  The  calm^  cool^  resolute  man  presented  a  noble  example  of  daring. 

2.  Russia  exports  wheat ^  talloic^flax^  and  hides. 

Note.— But  two  co-ordinate  words  joined  by  and  or  or  are  not  to  be  sep- 
arated. 

i/    Rule  II. — A  phrase,  unless  very  closely  connected  with  the  word  to 
which  it  belongs,  is  set  off  by  a  comma :  thus— 

1.  In  spite  of  all  difficulties^  they  resolved  to  make  the  attempt. 

2.  The  Indian  xn.on^vQ\\  stunned  and  bewildered^  saw  his  faithful 

subjects  falling  around  him. 

Note. — But  in  the  sentence,  "  Our  house  is  beautifully  situated  about  three 
miles  from  town,"  the  phrase  about  three  miles  from  town  is  too  closely  joined 
in  construction  to  be  separated  by  a  comma. 


152  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

\/    Rule  III.— In  a  succession  of  phrases,  eacli  pkrase  is  set  off  by  a 
comma:  thus — 

At  daybreak,  the  combined  fleets  were  distinctly  seen  from  the 
Victory's  head,  formed  in  a  close  line  of  lattle  ahead^  on  the  star- 
hoard  taclc^  alout  twelve  miles  to  leeward^  and  standing  to  the  south. 

Rule  IV. — Adverbs  like  however,  indeed,  therefore,  etc.,  being 
equivalent  to  phrases,  are  generally  set  off  by  commas :  thus— 

1.  The  story,  however^  was  pronounced  untrue. 

2.  No  man,  indeed^  is  always  happy. 

V       Rule  V. — "Words  or  phrases  in  apposition  are  set  off  by  commas: 
thus — 

1.  James  Watt,  the  improve?'  of  the  steam-engine,  was  a  native  of 

Greenock. 

2.  Washington,  commander-in-chief  of  the  American  army,  won  the 

battle  of  Trenton. 

/      Rule  VI.— The  nommative  independent  (nominative  of  address)  is  set 
off  by  the  comma :  thus— 

Siceet  Auburn,  loveliest  village  of  the  plain ! 


2.  Construction. 

A  series  of  detached  statements  may  be  combined  into  a  simple 
sentence.     Thus — 

'  Three  vessels  sailed. 
They  were  small  vessels. 
They  sailed  from  Palos. 
Palos  is  a  seaport  town. 
It  is  in  Spain.  * 

They  sailed  on  the  3d  of  August. 
It  was  in  the  year  1492. 

Combined.— On  the  3d  of  August,  1492,  three  small  vessels  sailed 
from  Palos,  a  seaport  town  in  Spain. 


Separate  Statements. . 


SYNTHESIS    OF   THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE.  153 

EXERCISE    58. 

Combine  each  set  of  statements  into  a  simple  sentence,  as  in  tlie 
model. 

1.  Columbus  returned  to  Spain. 
He  returned  in  1493. 

He  had  spent  several  months  in  exploring  the  delightful  re- 
gions. 
These  regions  were  now  first  thrown  open  to  European  eyes. 

2.  Boston  was  occupied  by  soldiers. 
This  was  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 
The  soldiers  were  British. 

There  were  three  thousand  of  them. 
They  were  commanded  by  General  Gage. 

3.  New  York  is  a  great  city. 
It  is  a  commercial  city. 

It  is  situated  on  New  York  Bay. 

It  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River. 

4.  I  have  a  dress. 

It  is  a  pretty  dress. 

It  is  a  blue  dress. 

It  is  made  of  silk. 

It  is  cut  in  the  latest  fashion. 

It  is  trimmed  with  lace. 

5.  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  defeated. 
He  was  defeated  at  Pultowa. 

It  was  by  Peter  the  Great  he  was  defeated. 
Peter  the  Great  was  Czar  of  Russia. 

6.  The  house  was  burned. 
It  was  a  white  house. 
It  was  on  the  hill. 

It  had  a  beautiful  garden. 

7.  The  smugglers  came  to  the  hermit's  cell. 
They  came  on  the  third  day. 

They  came  by  the  direction  of  the  peasants. 
G2 


154:  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

8.  A  balloon  is  a  bag. 
It  is  a  tliin  bag. 
It  is  a  light  bag. 
It  is  made  of  varnished  silk. 
It  is  generally  shaped  like  a  globe. 
It  is  filled  with  a  fluid  lighter  than  common  air. 


LVIIL— ANiXYSIS   OF  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Complex  Sentence.  "* 
\   I.  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  one  independent,  or  principal, 
proposition  and  one  or  more  clauses. 

II.  Connectives, — Clauses  are  joined  to  principal  statements  by — 

1.  Subordinate  conjunctions:  as,  ?*/*,  that,  though,  unless. 

2.  Eelative  pronouns  :  namely,  who,  which,  that,  and  ivhat. 

3.  Conjunctive  adverbs  :  as,  when,  where,  while,  why. 

III.  There  are  three  kinds  of  clauses :    I.  The   noun  clause. 
II.  The  adjective  clause.     III.  The  adverbial  clause. 

lY.  A  noun  clause  is  a  clause  used  as  a  noun ;  it  may  be  the 

subject  or  the  object  of  a  sentence :  as — 

1.  Wlien  he  will  go  is  uncertain. 

2.  Do  you  remember  what  I  said  f 


EXERCISE    59. 
a. 

Point  out  the  noun  clauses  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
whether  they  are  subjects  or  objects. 

1.  They  soon  saw  that  the  elephant's  mouth  was  underneath  his 

trunk. 

2.  No  one  could  tell  what  had  become  of  him. 


ANALYSIS    OF    COMPLEX    SENTENCES.  155 

3.  That  we  get  leather  from  skins  is  known  to  every  one. 

4.  Where  Homer  w^as  born  is  not  known. 

5.  Every  one  thought  the  tree  would  be  blown  down. 

b. 

Supply  noun  clauses  in  the  following  sentences. 

1.  Do  you  not  remember ? 

2.  Most  people  know 

3.  How  could  she  hear ? 

4.  People  used  to  think 

5.  He  asked  one  of  the  masons  to  tell  him 


Y.  An  adjective  clause  is  a  clause  used  as  an  adjective  to  modify 
a  noun :  as — 

Those  birds  tTiat  live  on  other  animals  are  called  birds  of  prey. 


EXERCISE    60. 
a. 

Point  out  the  adjective  clauses^  and  tell  what  nouns  they  qualify. 

1.  I  know  a  story  of  an  eagle,  which  you  will  like  to  hear. 

2.  The  crowd  that  had  gathered  round  to  welcome  her  now  stood 

back. 

3.  Franklin,  who  was  a  great  philosopher,  was  born  in  Boston. 

4.  We  get  silk  from  a  caterpillar  which  is  called  the  silkworm. 

5.  The  house  where  Shakspeare  was  born  still  stands. 

6.  Among  the  foreigners  who  repaired  to  Egypt  to  buy  com  were 

the  brethren  of  Joseph. 

7.  The  Scots,  who  advanced  to  York,  ravaged  the  country  with 

unsparing  fury. 

8.  The  minutest  animal  that  is  attentively  examined  affords  a 

thousand  wonders.  * 

9.  The  heart  of  Robert  Bruce,  which  was  preserved  in  a  silver 

case,  was  consigned  to  the  care  of  Douglas. 


156  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

Supply  adjective  clauses, 

1.  I  will  show  you  the  book 

2.  The  hides  of  oxen  and  sheep  are  sold  to  the  tanner  ...... 

3.  The  milk  and  the  butter are  obtained  from  the  cow. 

4.  That  is  the  house 

5.  Are  these  the  acorns ? 


VI.  An  adyerbial  clause  is  a  clause  used  as  an  adverb  to  modify 
verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  adverbs :  as — 

The  daisy  shuts  her  eye  when  the  dew  "begins  to  fall. 


EXERCISE    61, 
a. 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses. 

1.  We  shall  sail  when  the  moon  rises. 

2.  The  sugar-cane  is  pressed  between  heavy  rollers  till  all  the  juice 

runs  out. 

3.  As  they  drew  near  the  nest,  the  eagle  dashed  by. 

4.  If  we  study,  we  shall  improve. 

5.  You  will  not  succeed  unless  you  persevere. 

b. 

Supply  adverbial  clauses. 

1.  We  shall  be  glad  to  see  you  ......  , 

2.  Come 

3.  I  will  tell  you  a  secret 

4.  Charles  had  not  been  five  minutes  on  the  ice 

5.  We  shall  learn  a  great  many  things  ...... 

Write  a  complex  sentence  on  each  of  the  following  words : 

1.  Ants.  3.  The  buJBfalo.  5.  Scholars. 

2.  Music.  4.  Columbus.  6.  Geography. 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    COMPLEX    SENTENCE.  157 

2,  Directions  for  the  Analysis  of  Complex  Sentences. 
In  analyzing  complex  sentences,  proceed  as  follows : 

1.  Tell  which  is  the 'principal  statement. 

2.  Tell  which  is  the  clause. 

3.  Tell  what  connective  joins  the  clause  with  the  principal  state- 
ment. 

4.  Then  analyze  the  principal  statement  and  the  clause,  as  in  the 
case  of  simple  sentences. 

Model  for  Analyzing  Complex  Sentences. 

When  the  war  closed^  Washington  retired  to  Mount  Vernon, 
This  is  a  complex  sentence.  The  principal  statement  is,  "  Wash- 
ington retired  to  Mount  Vernon."  The  clause  (or  subordinate  state- 
ment) is,  "  When  the  w^ar  closed."  The  connective  is  the  conjunctive 
adverb  "  when."  The  subject  of  the  principal  statement  is  "  Wash- 
ington." The  predicate  is  "retired."  The  predicate  is  modified  by 
the  adverbial  phrase  "to  Mount  Vernon."  The  subject  of  the  clause 
is  "  the  war."     The  predicate  is  "  closed." 


EXERCISE    62. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences : 

1.  If  you  would  be  happy,  you  must  be  active. 

2.  We  get  silk  from  a  caterpillar  which  is  called  the  silkworm. 

3.  I  shall  be  ready  when  you  call  me. 

4.  He  is  proud  that  he  is  a  soldier.       / 

5.  Wait  till  you  see. 

6.  The  sea,  after  it  had  spent  its  fury,  became  calm. 

7.  When  the  door  was  opened,  the  people  crowded  into  the  hall. 

8.  And  when  he  next  doth  ride  abroad, 
May  I  be  there  to  see. 

9.  Call  upon  me  when  you  have  time  to  spare. 
10.  Can  you  tell  me  where  they  have  laid  him  ? 


168  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

11.  He  who  ascends  to  mountain-tops  shall  find  .        / 
The  loftiest  peaks  most  wrapt  in  clouds  and  snow. 

12.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 

Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 
The  flame  that  lit  the  battle's  wTcck 
Shone  round  him  o'er  the  dead. 


LIX.— SYNTHESIS  OF  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 

1.  Punctiiatioii. 

Rule  I. — Introductory  adverbial  clauses  are,  in  general,  set  off  from 
the  principal  btatement  by  a  comma :  thus— 

1.  Before  the  storm  began,  w^e  had  built  a  camp-fire. 

2.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it. 

HuLE  II.— Explanatory  adjective  clauses,  introduced  by  who  or 
WHICH  [="and  he,"  ^'and  it,"  etc.],  are  set  off  by  commas.  Eestrictive 
clauses,  introduced  by  that  or  an  equivalent  connective,  require  no 
commas:  thus — 

EXPLANATORY  CLAUSES. 

1.  The  king,  who  [zi^and  he]  was  a  merciful  ruler,  forgave  the 

ofibnce. 

2.  The  Missouri,  which  [=:ajid  it]  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is 

the  chief  tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 

EESTRICTIVE  CLAUSES. 

1.  That  is  the  man  who  aided  me. 

2.  It  is  the  tallest  tree  that  I  ever  saw.  . 

/   Rule  III.— A  noun  clause  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  set  off  from 
the  verb  by  a  comma :  thus— 

1.  That  the  earth  rotates  on  its  axis,  was  denied  by  the  ancients. 

2.  That  illiterate  men  should  be  intelligent  votere,  is  not  to  be 

expected. 

Rule  IV.— A  noun  clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  re- 
quires no  comma :  thus— 

I  have  told  you  who  he  is. 


SYNTHESIS    OF    THE    COMPLEX    SENTENCE. 


159 


Rule  V. — Wlieii  the  sentence  is  introduced  by  the  pronoun  rr,  and  the 
noun  clause  is  put  after  the  verb,  no  comma  is  required ;  thus— 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  indolent  pupils  should  rank  high  in 
their  class. 

\   Rule  VI.— Commas  must  be  used  to  set  off  the  principal  statement 
when  it  comes  between  the  divided  parts  of  an  objective  clause :  thus-- 

1.  He  expected,  it  seems^  to  surprise  the  enemy. 

2.  The  man  was  murdered,  it  is  supposed^  by  a  band  of  Apaches. 

3.  "Beautiful  creature,"  said  the  cunning  fox,  "you  sing  like  a 

nightingale." 


2.  Construction. 

Two  or  more  simple  sentences  may  be  combined  into  a  complex 
sentence  in  various  ways :  thus — 


1.  I  have  a  canary-bird.    His  name 

is  Jack. 

2.  The  boys  went  a-fishing.     They 

had  good  luck. 

3.  There  is  the  boy.    I  spoke  to 

him  yesterday. 

4.  Tea  is  a  refreshing  drink.     It  is 

used  by  all  nations. 

5.  I  will  go  on  one  condition.  You 

must  go  with  me. 

6.  He  did  not  improve.    The  reason 

was  idleness. 

7.  Riches  are   good.     Wisdom  is 

better. 

8.  Blanche  is  a  good  scholar.    Wil- 

lie is  an  equally  good  scholar. 


COMPLEX. 

1.  I  have  a  canary-bird  whose  name 

is  Jack. 

2.  The  boys  wTio  went  a-fishing  had 

good  luck. 

3.  This  is  the  boy  that  I  spoke  to 

yesterday. 

4.  Tea  is  a  refreshing  drink  which 

is  used  by  all  nations. 

5.  I  will  go  if  you  will. 

6.  He  did  not  improve  because  he 

was  idle. 

7.  Wisdom  is  better  than  riches 

[are]. 

8.  Willie  is  as  good  a  scholar  as 

Blanche  [is]. 


160 


ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS. 


[sec. 


Separate 
Statements. 


Examples  op  Synthesis. 

'  1.  The  Spaniards  were  surrounded  by  the  natives. 
3.  This  was  after  their  landing. 

3.  These  natives  w^ere  a  simple-minded  race  of  tawny 
savages. 

4.  They  gazed  with  astonishment  on  the  new-comers. 

Combined. — After  their  landing,  the  Spaniards  were  surrounded  by 
the  natives,  a  simple-minded  race  of  tawny  savages,  who  gazed  with 
astonishment  on  the  new-comers. 


Separate 
Statements. 


'  1.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  surrendered  himself  to  the 
British. 

2.  He  had  been  defeated  at  Waterloo. 

3.  He  was  exiled  by  the  British  to  the  island  of  St. 

Helena. 


Combined.  —  After  he  had  been  defeated  at  Waterloo,  Napoleon 
Bonaparte  surrendered  himself  to  the  British,  by  whom  he  was  exiled 
to  the  island  of  St.  Helena. 

NOTE. — When  there  are  several  adverbial  clauses,  use  one  or  more 
of  them  to  introduce  the  sentence,  instead  of  crowding  them  all  to- 
gether after  the  main  verb. 


EXERCISE   63. 

Combine  the  groups  of  statements  into  complex  sentences  as  in 
the  model. 

1.  A  crow  had  seized  a  piece  of  cheese. 
He  flew  up  with  it  to  a  high  tree. 

Here  he  quietly  prepared  to  enjoy  his  repast. 

2.  The  King  of  England  granted  these  men  a  great  slice  of  terri- 

tory in  America. 
This  king's  name  was  James  the  First. 
This  territory  was  claimed  by  the  English. 


EXAMPLES    OF    SYNTHESIS.  161 

3.  A  sea-captain  entered  the  Narrows. 

He  did  this  after  sailing  along  the  American  coast. 
He  sailed  in  a  little  craft  called  the  "  Half  Moon." 
The  name  of  this  captain  was  Henry  Hudson. 

4.  Our  country  had  to  carry  on  a  severe  struggle  with  the  French 

in  America. 
This  was  during  the  time  that  our  country  belonged  to  England. 

5.  The  British  rulers  passed  a  law. 

They  did  this  to  get  money  out  of  the  Colonies. 
Tliis  law  was  that  no  writing  should  be  held  valid  in  the  court 
unless  it  was  written  on  stamped  paper. 

6.  Boston  was  occupied  by  British  soldiers. 
They  had  been  sent  out  to  overawe  the  patriots. 

7.  The  patriots  began  to  make  preparations  for  war. 

They  did  this  because  they  saw  the  king  w^as  bent  on  forcing 
them  to  obey  his  unjust  laws. 

8.  Washington  hemmed  in  the  British  very  closely  in  Boston. 
He  did  this  so  closely  that  they  came  near  starving. 

9.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  put  forth  by  the  Conti- 

nental Congress. 
This  Congress  w^as  the  real  government  of  this  country  at  that 
time. 

10.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  written  by  Thomas  Jef- 

ferson. 
He  was  afterwards  President  of  the  United  States. 

11.  The  old  bell-man  rang  the  bell. 

He  rang  it  when  the  Declaration  was  adopted. 
This  bell  proclaimed  "  liberty  throughout  all  the  land,  unto  the 
inhabitants  thereof." 

12.  The  leading  orator  of  Virginia  was  Patrick  Henry. 

He  excited  the  people  to  rise  against  the  tyranny  of  Great 
Britain. 


162  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

13.  Lafayette  crossed  the  ocean. 

He  did  this  to  give  his  sword  to  America. 

He  was  born  to  high  rank  in  France. 

When  he  crossed  the  ocean  he  was  only  nineteen  years  of  age. 

14.  The  scholar  will  learn  something. 
He  will  learn  it  wlien  he  grows  up. 

What  he  will  learn  is  that  the  seeds  of  the  war  of  Secession 
were  sown  long  before  the  men  who  waged  the  w^ar  were 
born. 

15.  Columbus  waited  seven  years. 

He  then  turned  his  back  on  the  court  of  Spain. 
He  resolved  to  apply  to  the  King  of  France. 

16.  Columbus  was  overtaken  by  a  messenger. 
This  was  while  on  his  way  to  France. 

The  messenger  was  sent  by  the  Queen  of  Spain  to  call  him  back. 


LX.--ANALYSIS    OF   THE   COMPOUND   SENTENCE. 

1.  Nature  of  the  Oompoimd  Sentence, 

\     I.  The  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  independent 
propositions. 

11.  Compound  sentences  may  consist  of  two  or  more  simple  sen- 
tences, or  of  two  or  more  complex  sentences,  or  of  a  simple  sentence 
combined  with  a  complex  sentence  :  thus — 

1.  The  fields  are  fragrant  and  the  woods-  are  green. 

2.  I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke, 
But  here  I  am  to  speak  what  I  do  know. 

3.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them ;  [but] 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. 

ni.  The  leading  statements  of  a  compound  sentence  are  general- 
ly connected  by  a  co-ordinate  conjunction  expressed  or  understood. 


ANALYSIS    OF    THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE.  163 


NOTES. 

I.  The  principal  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are  and^  also,  oi\  nor,  hut, 
Tioioever,  noticitlistandlng,  yet,  and /or. 

II.  Some  common  adverbial  connectives  in  compound  sentences  are 
again,  besides,  then,  when,  where,  whence,  on  the  other  hand,  for  all  that, 

III.  A  relative  pronoun,  or  a  conjunctive  adverb,  when  it  contains 
the  force  of  and,  may  connect  the  statements  of  a  compound  sentence : 
thus — 

1.  I  met  General  Jackson,  who  [and  he]  invited  me  to  enter  his  head- 

quarters. 

2.  At  length  the  reinforcements  arrived  on  the  field,  w7ien  [and  then]  the 

terrible  struggle  was  renewed. 


2.  Directions  for  Analysis. 
In  analyzing  a  compound  sentence,  mention  the  principal  state- 
ments, and  state  what  conjunction  connects   them ;  then  proceed 
to  analyze  the  separate  statements  as  in  the  analysis  of  simple 
sentences. 

Model  of  Analysis. 

The  Revolutionary  War  lasted  for  seven  years,  and  it  ended  in 
1782. 

This  is  a  compound  sentence.  It  is  composed  of  the  two  statements 
"  The  Revolutionary  "War  lasted  for  seven  years  "  and  "  It  ended  in 
1782."  These  statements  are  connected  by  the  co-ordinate  conjunction 
"  and." 

The  first  statement  is,  "The  Revolutionary  War  lasted  for  seven 
years."  The  simple  subject  is  "  war."  The  subject  is  enlarged  by  the 
adjectives  "the"  and  "Revolutionary."  The  simple  predicate  is 
"  lasted."  The  predicate  is  enlarged  by  the  adverbial  phrase  "  for 
seven  years." 

The  second  statement  is,  "  It  ended  in  1782."  The  subject  is  "  it" 
— not  enlarged.  The  simple  predicate  is  "  ended."  The  predicate  is 
enlarged  by  the  adverbial  phrase  "in  1782." 


164  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

EXERCISE    64. 

Analyze  the  following  compound  sentences : 

1.  The  country  was  rich,  and  the  city  was  the  centra  of  its  wealth. 

2.  The  man  recovered  from  the  bite,  but  the  dog  died. 

3.  The  army  must  gain  a  victory,  or  our  cause  wdll  be  ruined. 

4.  All  the  world  is  a  stage,  and  all  the  men  and  women  [are]  mere- 
ly players. 

5.  There  were  no  more  worlds  to  conquer;  therefore  Alexander 
w^ept. 

6.  Prosperity  did  not  unduly  elate  Washington,  nor  did  misfortune 
cast  him  down. 

7.  A  great  war  may  be  very  glorious,  but  it  is  also  very  miserable. 

8.  By  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin,  cotton  was  crowned  king, 
and  a  new  era  was  opened  for  America. 

9.  Justice  was  administered  under  the  shade  of  forest-trees,  and 
the  jury  sat  upon  a  log. 

10.  There  was  timber  to  fell,  there  were  fences  to  build,  and  there 
were  fields  to  plough. 

11.  Prosperity  makes  friends,  but  adversity  tries  them. 

12.  Night's  candles  are  burned  out,  and  jocund  day 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain-tops. 


LXL— SYNTHESIS  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

1.  Punctuation  of  the  Compound  Sentence. 

Rule  I.— Closely  connected  principal  statements,  unless  much  con- 
tracted, are,  in  general,  set  off  by  a  comma,  and  are  always  so  set  off  when 
there  are  more  than  two  principal  statements:  thus— 

1.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  of  Italian  blood,  and  was  a  Corsican 

by  birth. 

2.  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 


SYNTHESIS  OF  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 


165 


Rule  II.— Loosely  connected  principal  statements,  when  long  or  when 
subdivided  by  a  comma,  are  separated  by  a  semicolon ;  thus — 

1.  The  history  of  the  Orient  is  the  history  oi  dynasties:  the  history 

of  Greece  and  Rome  is  the  history  of  the  people. 

2.  The  Greeks  were  indebted  to  the  Phoenicians  for  the  alphabet; 

the  Romans  adopted  the  Greek  alphabet  with  some  changes ; 
the  Roman  alphabet  is  the  basis  of  our  modern  alphabet. 

Rule  III.— When  a  compound  sentence  is  elliptical,  the  omission  of 
the  principal  statement  is  marked  by  a  semicolon  before  each  of  a  series 
of  clauses:  thus— 

England  has  to  undergo  the  revolt  of  the  colonies ;  [England  has] 
to  submit  to  defeat  and  separation ;  [  ?  ]  to  shake  under  the  vol- 
cano of  the  French  Revolution ;  [  ]  to  grapple  and  fight  for  the 
life  with  her  gigantic  enemy,  Napoleon ;  [  ]  to  gasp  and  rally 
after  that  tremendous  struggle. 

Rule  IV.— .Principal  statements  and  clauses  are  punctuated  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  for  the  simple  and  the  complex  sentence. 


2.  Construction. 

.    Separate  statements  may  be  combined  into  a  compound  sentence 
in  various  ways.     Thus — 


SEPARATE   STATEMENTS. 

The  day  was   cold.     The  day 
was  stormy. 

2.  Animals    live.     Animals   grow. 

Animals  feel.    Animals  move. 

3.  I  will  go.     You  must  not  go. 

4.  You  cannot  go.     I  cannot  go. 

5.  You  must  work.    The  alterna- 

tive is  to  starve. 


1 


COMBINED. 

1.  The  day  was  cold  and  stormy. 

2.  Animals    live,    grow,  feel,  and 

move. 

3.  I  will  go,  but  you  must  not. 

4.  Neither  you  nor  I  can  go. 

5.  You  must  either  work  or  starve. 


166  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

Examples  of  Synthesis. 
Separate    j  The  sun  is  the  centre  of  the  solar  system. 


;.|: 


Combined. — The  sun  is  the  centre  of  the  solar  system,  and  is  the 
great  source  of  light  and  heat. 

r  You  can  go  to  school. 
Separate    J  You  are  well. 
Statements.  I  I  must  stay  at  home. 

1 1  am  sick. 
Combined. — You  can  go  to  school,  for  you  are  well ;  but  I  must  stay 
at  home  because  I  am  sick. 


EXERCISE    65. 

Combine  the  separate  statements  into  compound  sentences. 

1.  Plants  live.    Plants  grow.    Plants  die.     Plants  do  not  feel. 

Plants  do  not  have  the  power  of  voluntary  motion. 

2.  Labor  and  learning  may  toil  for  eloquence.     Labor  and  learning 

will  toil  in  vain. 

3.  Eloquence  must  exist  in  the  man.    Eloquence  must  exist  in  the 

subject.    Eloquence  must  exist  in  the  occasion. 

4.  Will  it  be  the  next  week  ?    Will  it  be  next  year  ? 

5.  I  struck  the  man  in  self-defence.    I  explained  this  to  the  police 

judge.  He  would  not  believe  me.  Witnesses  were  called  to 
support  my  statements.  He  committed  me  to  prison.  He 
had  no  right  to  do  this. 

6.  Alexandria  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  antiquity. 
It  was  anciently  the  residence  of  the  kings  of  Egypt. 

.    7.  Boston  is  a  great  American  seaport. 

San  Francisco  is  also  a  great  American  seaport. 
New  York  is  a  seaport  greater  than  both  together. 
8.  The  wolf  could  not  run  fast. 

The  sheep's  clothing  \vas  hanging  about  his  legs. 

He  was  detected. 

He  was  shot  by  one  of  the  men. 


EXPANSION    AND    CONTRACTION    OF    SENTENCES. 


167 


9.  At  last  the  capital  of  Palestine  rose  on  their  view. 

Palestine  was  lovely  even  in  her  desolation  [adj.  phrase,  limit- 
ing Palestine]. 
The  knights  wet  the  turf  with  tears  of  mingled  joy  and  grief. 
They  did  so  when  springing  from  their   saddle  [participial 
phrase,  limiting  'knights']. 

10.  We  revere  Washington  [why  ?]. 
He  was  a  patriot. 

We  execrate  Arnold  [why  ?]. 
He  was  a  traitor. 

11.  Bois-Gilbert  turned  his  countenance  towards  Rebecca. 
He  then  exclaimed  [something]. 

He  did  so,  looking  fiercely  at  Ivanhoe. 

He  exclaimed,  "  Dog  of  a  Saxon !  take  thy  lance,  and  prepare 
for  the  death  thou  hast  drawn  upon  thee." 


LXH.— EXPANSION  AND  CONTRACTION  OF  SENTENCES. 


1.  Simple  to  Oomplex. 

Direction. — A  simple  sentence  may  be  expanded  into  a  complex 
sentence  by  changing  a  word  or  phrase  into  a  clause.    Thus — 


SIMPLE. 

1.  We  arrived  there  after  sunset. 

2.  Honest  boys  will  be  trusted. 

3.  I  expected  him  to  be  there. 


4.  I  told  you  to  go.  4. 

0.  I  supposed  it  to  be  him.  5. 

G.  The   attack  having  failed,  the  »G. 
enemy  withdrew. 


COMPLEX. 

We  arrived  there  after  the  sun 

had  set. 
Boys  who   are  honest  will  be 

trusted. 
I  expected  that  he » would  be 

there. 
I  told  you  that  you  should  go. 
I  supposed  that  it  was  he. 
After  the  attack  had  failed,  the 

enemy  withdrew. 


168  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

EXERCISE    66, 

Expand  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex  sentences : 

1.  Quarrelsome  persons  are  disagreeable. 

2.  The  ancients  believed  the  earth  to  be  the  centre  of  the  universe. 

3.  With  patience,  he  might  have  succeeded. 

4.  The  utility  of  the  telegraph  is  evident  to  all. 

5.  The  manner  of  his  escape  is  a  profound  mystery. 

6.  Mary  being  ill,  we  had  to  go  to  the  picnic  without  her. 

7.  I  supposed  the  birds  to  be  sand-pipers. 

8.  In  collecting  honey,  bees  do  not  confine  themselves  solely  to 

flowers. 

9.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  battle,  the  commander  began  to  count 

his  loss. 
10.  The  discoveries  of  Livingstone,  one  of  the  greatest  travellers  of 
modern  times,  have  taught  us  much  about  the  interior  of 
Africa.  

2.  Complex  to  Compound, 

Direction. — A  complex  sentence  may  Ibe  expanded  into  a  com- 
ponnd  sentence  by  changing  a  clause  into  a  principal  proposition. 

Thus— 

COMPLEX.  COMPOUND. 


1.  When  he  had  become  exhausted, 

the  swimmer  was  drowned. 

2.  As  Mary  was  ill,  w^e  had  to  go 

to  the  picnic  without  her. 

3.  The    Scots,  w^ho    advanced  to 

York,   ravaged   the    country 
with  unsparing  fury. 


1.  The  swimmer  became  exhaust- 

ed, and  he  was  drowned. 

2.  Mary  was  ill,  and  hence  we  had 

to  go  to  the  picnic  without  her. 

3.  The  Scots   advanced  to  York, 

and  ravaged  the  country  with 
unsparing  fury. 


EXERCISE    67. 

Expand  the  following  complex  sentences  into  compound : 

1.  As  the  wind  was  fair,  the  vessel  put  to  sea. 

2.  Beyond  the  Mississippi  are  yast  j^rairies,  over  which  roam  great 

herds  of  buffalo. 


EXPANSION    AND    CONTRACTION    OF    SENTENCES.  169 

3.  The  heart  of  Robert  Bruce,  which  was  preserved  in  a  silver  case, 

was  consigned  to  the  care  of  Douglas. 

4.  The  Rhone,  which  flows  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  emerges  from 

it  at  the  town  of  that  name. 

5.  The  coral  insect,  which  barely  possesses  life,  is  hourly  creating 

habitations  for  man  [and  yet  it^  etc.]. 

C.  The  men  ran  away  because  they  became  frightened. 

7.  When  his  reinforcements  arrived,  Napoleon  ordered   an  ad- 
vance alon<?  the  whole  line. 


3.  Oompouiid  to  Complex. 

Direction. — A  compound  sentence  may  be  contracted  into  a 
complex  sentence  by  changing  a  principal  proposition  into  a 
clanse:  thus — 

COMPOUND.  COMPLEX. 


1.  The  sea  spent  its  fury,  and  then 

it  became  calm. 

2.  The  earth  is  round,  and  no  one 

doubts  it. 

3.  He  was  only  a  boy,  and  hence 

he  was  pardoned. 


1.  The  sea,  when  it  had  spent  its 

fury,  became  calm. 

2.  No  one  doubts  that  the  earth  is 

round. 

3.  As  he  was  only  a  boy,  he  was 

pardoned. 


EXERCISE    68. 

Contract  the   following  compound   sentences   into  complex   sen- 
tences : 

1.  The  light  infantry  joined  the  main  body,  and  the  British  troops 

retreated  precipitately  into  Boston. 

2.  He  was  a  worthless  man,  and  he  could  not  command  the  respect 

of  his  neighbors. 

3.  Egypt  is  a  wonderfully  fertile  country,  and  it  is  annually  over- 

flowed by  the  River  Nile. 

4.  The  house  was  very  large,  and  consequently  there  was  little 

comfort  in  it. 

5.  The  battle  was  concluded,  and  then  the  commander  began  to 

estimate  his  loss. 

II 


170  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

6.  The  electric  telegraph,  which  was  invented  by  Professor  Morse, 

an  American,  has  greatly  facilitated  business  by  bringing  all 
parts  of  the  world  into  communication. 

7.  The  Jordan  rises  in  Lebanon,  and  flows  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

8.  The  mode  of  ascent  has  been  often  described,  and  yet  it  does 

not  appear  to  be  generally  understood. 


4.  Complex  to  Simple. 

Direction. — A  complex  sentence  maybe  contrftcted  into  a  simple 
sentence  by  changing  a  clause  into  a  phrase  or  word. 

COMPLEX.  SIMPLE. 


1.  I  expect  that  he  will  go. 

2.  The  boy  that  was  lost  has  been 

found. 
8.  I  did  not  know  that  he  was  de- 
feated. 

4.  The  fact  that  he  was  sick  was 

unfortunate. 

5.  The  man  who   committed  the 

murder  was  han<?ed. 


1.  I  expect  him  to  go.' 

2.  The  lost  boy  has  been  found. 

8.  I  did  not  know  of  his  defeat. 

4.  His  being  sick  was  unfortunate. 

5.  The  murderer  was  hanged. 


EXERCISE    69. 

Contract  the  following  comjylex  sentences  into  simple  sentences  : 

1.  Socrates  proved  that  virtue  is  its  own  reward. 

2.  When  morning  began  to  dawn,  our  ship  struck  on  a  sunken 

reef,  near  the  rock-bound  coast. 

3.  It  may  be  easily  shown  that  the  earth  is  round  [the  rotundity 

of]. 

4.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

5.  The  rain  has  been  falling  ever  since  the  sun  rose. 
G.  A  tree  is  known  by  the  fruit  that  it  bears. 

7.  As  Egypt  is  annually  overflowed  by  the  Kile,  it  is  a  very  rich 
countrv. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN   LETTER-WRITING.  171 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    LETTER -WRITING 

AND    BUSINESS    COMPOSITION. 

a. 

LETTER-WRIXma. 

Arrangement  of  a  Letter. — The  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a 
letter  is  important,  and  the  following  points  should  be  attended  to : 

1.  The  date  and  the  place  where  it  is  written.  The  day,  month, 
and  year  should  be  given  in  full.  Never  date  a  letter  merely  by  the 
day  of  the  week ;  as,  "  Monday  morning." 

2.  The  form  of  address;  as,  "Sir,"  "Dear  Sir,"  "  My  dear  Charles," 
"  My  dearest  Father,"  according  to  the  terms  of  intimacy  between 
the  writer  and  the  person  addressed. 

3.  The  narrative,  or  letter  proper. 

4.  The  subscription ;  as,  "  Yours  truly,"  "  Yours  faithfully," 
"  Your  affectionate  brother,"  etc.  (varying,  as  in  No.  2,  with  the 
relations  of  the  parties),  and  the  name  of  the  writer. 

5.  The  name  of  the  recipient, 

SUPERSCRIPTIONS  AND   SUBSCRIPTIONS. 

The  following  superscriptions,  subscriptions,  etc.,  of  letters  are  de- 
signed to  show  what  is  now  regarded  the  most  approved  arrangement 
and  style  of  these  parts ;  and  they  may  serve  as  models,  according  to 
circumstances. 

Some  of  the  most  common  forms  of  address  are,  Sir,  Dear  Sir,  My 
dear  Sir,  Respected  Sir,  Sirs,  Dear  Sirs,  Gentlemen,  Ladies,  Madam, 
Dear  Madam,  etc. ;  Friend  Brown,  Dear  Susan,  My  dear  Friend,  Mother, 
Brother,  etc. ;  according  to  the  relations  of  respect,  intimacy,  or  affection 
existing  between  the  parties.  Note  that  the  form  of  address,  Madam, 
Dear  Madam,  is  as  applicable  to  unmarried  as  to  married  ladies. 

The  closing  part  may  be  Yours,  Yours  truly,  Most  truly  yours,  Veiy 
truly  yours,  Yours  respectfully.  Respectfully,  Sincerely  yours;  Your 
friend,  obedient  servant,  etc. ;  Yours  affectionately.  Your  affectionate 
friend,  Your  loving  brother,  sister,  etc.,  followed  by  the  name  of  the 
writer.     The  closing  will  vary  with  the  relations  of  the  parties. 

Mr.,  Mrs.,  Miss,  and  Master  are  common  titles,  and  should  be  used  un- 


172  ANALYSIS   AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI, 

less  the  person  has  a  higher  title.  Messrs.  and  Misses  are  prefixed  to  the 
name  of  a  firm,  or  to  the  names  of  persons  collectively,  and  the  name  is 
followed  by  Sirs,  Dear  Sirs,  Gentlemen,  or  Ladies,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Medical  men  have  the  titles  Dr.  and  M.D.  Legal  gentlemen,  artists, 
and  sometimes  others  of  high  social  standing,  have  tlie  title  Esq.  But 
the  title  Esq.  has  so  completely  lost  all  meaning  in  this  countiy  that 
persons  of  good  taste  are  wholly  ceasing  to  use  it :  thus, "  Mr.  John 
Smith,"  not  "  John  Smith,  Esq."  fW°  Be  careful  never  to  use  the 
form  "ilfr.  John  Smith,  Esq."  Military  men  have  the  titles  Gen., 
Maj.-Gen.,  Col,,  Capt.,  etc.,  according  to  rank.  Graduates  of  colleges 
have  some  academic  title,  as  A.B.,  A.M.,  etc.  Clergymen  have  the  titles 
Rev.j  Rev.  Dr.,  and,  if  bishops,  that  of  Rt.  Rev.  Hon.  is  the  proper  title 
for  judges,  congressmen,  state  senators,  mayors  of  cities,  heads  of  gov- 
ernment departments,  and  others  of  similar  rank ;  and  His  Excellency, 
for  the  governor  of  any  state,  or  an  ambassador  of  the  United  States. 
The  President  may  be  addressed  His  Excellency,  but  strict  etiquette 
prescribes  the  form  as  included  in  the  following  models. 

1.  Heacliyg  or  Date. 


.^^.  yf: 


2.  Address. 


Jdress. 


3.  Introduction. 

'eai    (Ml: 


4.  Body. 


O/n  ie/ily  lo  yotci  leltei  0/ 
Me  /Otn  tn&f,^  0/  ma  lecme  to  i^cm  i/ial  0/  ^mcdf 
cmei/auu  accec/e  to  ^otci  ^^eU/  ieasoname  iemce4l^  efc, 

5.  Subscription. 

/0UA6   ie6/iecmmy^ 

Q^Se7^iy    ^.   Q^ccm6. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    LETTER-WRITING.  173 


4u.   Qyic^od    (^   Q^Sa//, 


lei/iecfjuim   'notiU, 


g/o    me    ,SSoaU6   of  (bducafionj, 
^cjenue^Tten  : 


/eiy   ies/iect/uuu^ 


174  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VL 

1. 


^eal    Qf/ac/a 


'a77i 


'/oaU^ 


G/cnceie/u   yo 

/(^    ^€772^eifo7i    (Equate,    ^odon. 


!^.   ^ie^ic/enl  : 


Qy    nave    ine    nanai    to    ^6^   Q/iij 

o/imot/m    ^.    G/'iu4lu, 
g/o   me   <:2rieu'ae^l^ 

'^{icecatcT^e    64cmz6icy7t^ 

y/a^dmaton,   ^.  ^ 


3. 


m   cleai    O/^cma  : 


^ouU 


o/iu/i/j 


Q/Mac    Gl0.   Q^Sa77im7. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    LETTER-WRITING.  175 

^eai    (MUel    Q-^/c:ce: 

/oui    a//ectionatc    ^lamei^ 

Q^^lu    cleai    Q/ll.   J^lot(^7i: 

Note  of  InTitation. 
Mr.  Stewart  requests  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Marshall's  company  at 
dinner,  on  Thursday  next,  at  5  o'clock. 
124  Yanderbilt  Av. 

Monday,  29th  Sept. 

Reply. 

Mr.  Marshall   accepts   with   pleasure    Mr.  Stewart's   invitation* to 
dinner,  on  Thursday  next,  at  5  o'clock. 
72  Montague  St. 

Tuesday,  30th  Sept.         

Letter  of  Introduction. 

CniCAGO,  Se^t.  25, 1873. 
Dear  Sir, — It  gives  me  pleasure  to  introduce  to  you  my  much 
esteemed  friend,  Mr.  W.  P.  Johnson.     Any  attentions  that  you  may 
show  him  will  be  gratefully  acknowledged  and  cheerfully  recipro- 
cated by  Yours  truly, 
Hon.  Wm.  Graham,  A.  B.  Grover. 
27  State  Street, 

Albany,  N.  Y. 
Note. — It  is  not  customary  to  seal  a  letter  of  introduction. 


EXERCISE    70. 

1.  Write  a  letter  to  your  teacher  narrating  your  experiences  dur- 
ing your  last  vacation. 


17G  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [SEC.  fl, 

2.  Write  and  tell  your  duties  at  school — your  amusements  or  rec- 
reations— your  walks — books — thoughts  or  observations. 

3.  Write  and  tell  about  a  visit  to  a  museum  or  public  garden — the 
objects  of  interest,  etc. 

4.  Write  about  the  days  of  your  childhood — your  earliest  recollec- 
tions— your  first  days  at  school — your  impressions — your  ideas  about 
that  period  of  your  life. 

.  5.  Tell  about  the  book  you  are  reading — the  name — the  subject — 
the  style  —  the  information  —  your  opinion  of  it  —  any  other  works 
by  the  same  author. 

6.  Write  and  tell  about  an  evening  party  —  the  number  —  the 
amusements — the  music — the  pleasures  of  social  intercourse. 

7.  Write  the  results  of  the  last  examination  —  whether  you  were 
promoted — what  studies  you  are  pursuing  with  most  interest,  etc. 

b. 

BUSINESS   COMPOSITION. 

t  Boston,  Oct.  17,  1872. 

Mr.  Henry  L.  Stone, 

Bought  of  George  S.  Thompson  &  Co. 

48  yds.  Muslin,  at  .22  $10.56 

12     "    Drilling  "  .18  2.16 

20     ''    French  Chintz,  '<■  .40  8.00 

1  doz.  Spools  Thread,  "  .37  .37 

Received  Payment,  $21.09 

GEO.  S.  THOMPSON  &  CO. 


Mr.  Edward  Edson, 


San  Francisco,  iV^w.  1,  1872. 
To  Benjamin  H.  Fenton,  Dr, 


To  10  lbs.  Java  Coffee, 

at 

.40 

$4.00 

"     5    "    Green  Tea, 

(( 

1.20 

6.00 

"    12    "    Brown  Sugar 

u 

.14 

1.68 

*'     4  gals.  Molasses, 

(( 

.37i 

1.50 

Received  Payment, 

$13.18 

BENJ.  H.  FENTON, 

per  Fred. 

C.  Dow. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN  BUSINESS    COMPOSITION.         177 

EXERCISE    71. 

Make  out  the  bills  for  the  following  articles,  and  receipt  them : 

1.  Henry  Dixon  bought,  Feb.  3, 1873,  of  Peter  Brown  &  Co.,  12  lbs. 

of  sugar,  at  10  cts. ;  8  lbs.  of  coffee,  at  45  cts. ;  4  lbs.  of  tea,  at 
75  cts. 

2.  Jameson  &  Son  sold,  April  6,  1873,  to  Richard  Roby,  2  doz. 

men's  black  beaver  hats,  at  $4  apiece ;  6  doz.  boys'  drab  hats, 
at  $1.50  apiece ;  i  doz.  silk  umbrellas,  at  $4.50 ;  J  doz.  leather 
satchels,  at  $3.50. 

3.  Make  out  a  bill  for  labor ;  for  articles  purchased  at  a  hardware 

store;  boot -and -shoe  store;  book  store;  dry-goods  store; 
grocery  store ;  lumber  yard,  etc. 


Receipt  for  Rent. 

$309^^.  New  York,  Map  15, 1873.  ^ 

Recewecl  of  Messrs.  Harper  &  Brothers,  Tliree  Hundred  Nine  and 
■fjf\j  DollarSj  in  full  for  rent  of  store  No.  20  Canal  St.,  to  Sept.  1, 1873. 
WILLIAMSON  &  RICHARDSON, 

per  Jas.  H.  Johnson. 

Receipt  in  full  of  all  Demands. 

$500^J^o.  Cambridge,  Oct.  15, 1872. 

Received  of  Robt.  H.  Jenkins,  Five  Hundred  and  ^^^  Dollars,  in  full 
of  all  demands,  GEO.  H.  POWELL. 


EXERCISE    72. 

Make  out  receipts  as  above : 

1.  Henry  A.  Nichols  receives,  March  3,  1873,  of  Arthur  A.  An- 

drews, $840.25  on  account. 

2.  Geo.  R.  Stone,  of  Cambridge,  this  day  gives  Henry  Gilbert  $125, 

in  full  for  one  quarter's  rent  of  house.  No.  10  Elm  St. 

3.  For  the  rent  of  a  house ;  for  services  rendered ;  for  interest  on 

a  note  to  date;  for  money  received  on  account;  in  settle- 
ment of  an  account  to  date ;  for  investment,  etc. 
112 


178  ANALYSIS    AND    SYNTHESIS.  [sEC.  VI. 

Order  for  Goods. 

$500.  Cambridge,  August  9, 1873. 

Edw.  H.  Hamlin  tcill  please  deliver  to  Queen  &  Valentine  goods  to 
the  amount  of  Five  Hundred  Dollars^  and  charge  the  same  to 

WILLIAM  A.  STEWART. 

Order  for  Money. 
$33.  Boston,  Feb.  19, 1873. 

Messrs.  Brown  &  Hooker  : 

Gentlemen^ — Please  pay  to  Thomas  Andrews,  or  order.,  Thirty-three 

Dollars^  due  on  my  account^  and  ollige. 

Yours  respectfully, 

HENRY  W.  WILKINS. 

Bank  Check. 

No.  27.  Chicago,  Mv.  3, 1872. 

jfiXBt  jKatfoual  3Sanfe  of  0:i)icaBo, 
Pay   to   Wm.  H.  Bowker,  or    order  ^  Sixty -nine   and   j%%    Dollars. 
$69^0%.  SAMUEL  WALLACE. 


EXERCISE    73. 

Make  out  the  following  orders  in  due  form,  supplying  dates: 

1.  Carter  Brothers  give  to  Wm.  H.  Brown  an  order  for  10  barrels 

of  flour,  Genesee  Extra,  on  Roht.  L.  Fuller. 

2.  Lewis  Clarke  gives   Stephen  Dennisbn  an  order  on  Brown, 

Lewis,  &  Co.,  for  $2000. 

3.  Robt.  Fulton  gives  to  Hiram  Day  a  check  on  Charles  Rivei 

National  Bank,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  for  $1000. 

4.  Order  somebody  to  pay  money  to  somebody,  or  to  deliver  goods 

to  somebody,  and  charge  to  your  account,  or  to  the  account 
of  somebody  else. 


Promissory  Xote  Payable  to  Order.  . 
$300.  Richmond,  ^w^.  8, 1872. 

Mnety  days  after  date,  for  value  received,  I  p)'^omise  to  pay  James 
DiCKERMAN,  or  ovdcr,  Three  Hundred  Dollars. 

HENRY  G.  GRAHAM. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    BUSINESS    COMPOSITION.         179 

Promissory  Note  Payable  to  Bearer. 

$192i%<^o.  Cincinnati,  May  20, 1873. 

On  or  lefore  April  20, 1874, /c??*  Talue  received^  T pivmise  to  pay  Hicn- 
ARD  RowE,  or  dearer  J  One  Hundred  Ninety-two  and  ^'W  Dollars. 

JAMES  W.  WARD. 

Joint  and  Several  Note. 
$3061^(fo-  Boston,  Sept.  4, 1873. 

On  demand^  for  value  received,  we  jointly  and  severally  promise  to  pay 
Walter  Wheeler,  or  order,  Three  Thousand  Sixty-one  and  f'^Q  Dollars, 
with  interest  at  7  per  cent.  WARD,  WOOD.  <%  CO. 


EXERCISE    74. 

Write  out  the  following  according  to  the  models : 

1.  John  Scott,  of  Cambridge,  owes  Thomas  Hooker  $400,  for  which 

he  gives  his  note,  payable  to  him,  or  to  his  order,  in  4  months 
from  March  3, 1873. 

2.  On  or  before  the  10th  of  October,  1873,  Stephen  Morse,  Jr.,  of 

Boston,  promises  to  pay  to   William   Stickney,  or  bearer, 
$75.75.     Write  the  note,  and  date  it  April  10, 1873. 

3.  John  Smith,  of  Peoria,  this  day  promises  to  pay  to  William 

Stone,  or  order,  $400,  three  months  after  date. 


APPENDIX. 


A. 

PECULIABITIES  OF  NUMBER. 


Indeterminate  Forms.— A  few  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  the 
plural  as  for  the  singular.    Among  these  are — 

BINQULAE.  n.URAL. 

sheep  sheep 

deer  deer 

grouse  grouse 

salmon  salmon 

heathen  heathen 

In  these  indeterminate  forms  the  number  of  the  noun  is  to  be 
inferred  from  the  context:  thus,  "A  slieep  was  feeding  on  the  hill;" 
*'  Sheep  were  feeding  on  the  hill." 

Double  Plurals.— Some  nouns  have  double  plurals,  each  possessing 
a  peculiar  signification. 

BINGULAE.  PLUKAL.  PLUEAL. 

brother brothers  (by  birth) .brethren  (of  a  community). 

cloth cloths  (kinds  of  cloth) clothes  (garments). 

die dies  (stamps  for  coining) dice  (for  play). 

genius geniuses  (men  of  talent) genii  (spirits). 

index indexes  (contents) indices  (algebraic  signs). 

pea peas  (single  ones) pease  (collective). 

penny pennies  (coins) pence  (value  or  amount). 

staff staves  (common  use) staffs  (military  term). 

shot shot  (balls). shots  (number  of  rounds). 

fish fish  (collective) fishes  (individuals). 


182  APPENDIX. 

Plurals  as  Singulars.— Some  plural  forms  are  usually  treated  as 
singular :  as,  amends^  galloics,  neics,  odds^ pains,  icages.     So — 

politics \ 

ethics represent  Greek  plurals,  but  arc  now  treated  as  singu- 

physics •. /l^^'-     Thus,  "Mathematics  is  an  improving  study;" 

optics I  "Optics  is  the  science  of  light." 

mathematics j 


Plurals  only, — Some  nouns,  the  names  of  things  consisting  of  more 
than  one  part  or  forming  a  pair,  have  only  the  plural  form : 

annals  entrails  scissors 

antipodes  nuptials  shears 

breeches  pantaloons  tongs 

drawers  pincers  Tictuals 

dregs  scales  -  vitals 

Foreign  Plurals. — Many  foreign  nouns,  especially  those  that  are 
imperfectly  naturalized,  retain  their  foreign  plural.*  (The  plurals  of 
such  nouns  are  readily  found  by  reference  to  a  dictionary.) 

BINaULAB.  PLURAL. 

/  formula  formulae 

(1)  Latin \  datum  data 

•  ( radius  radii 

/ox  Qy,^^^  \  ^^is  ^         axes 

^'^^  *  *  *  t  phenomenon  phenomena 

(Z)  Italian P*""''  ^''°'^'"' 

( Virtuoso  virtuosi 


(4)  Helrew J 


cherub  cherubim 

seraph  seraphim 


*  1.  Many  Latin  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  retain  their  Latin  end- 
ings: 

Nouns  in  us  (masculine)  form  the  plural  in  i;  as,  focus,  foci. 
"       "  tts  (neuter)  "       "        "       "  era;  as,  genus,  genera. 

"       "  wm  "       "        '*       "  a;  as,  stratum,  strata. 

"       "  a  tt       tt       a       u  f^.  as,  nebula,  nebulae. 

"    ■   '"'•  ex  "       "        "       "  zc^s ;  as,  vortex,  vortices. 

2.  Some  Greek  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  retain  the  Greek  endings 
in  the  plural :  thus — 

Nouns  in  is    form  the  plural  in  es ;  as,  crisis,  crises. 

"       "  071     "       "        "       "  a;  as,  phenomenon,  phenomena. 


( 

MODEL    OF    CONJUGATION    OF    IRREGULAR    VERBS.  183 

Compounds. — With  regard  to  compounds  the  following  points  are 
to  be  noted : 

I.  The  plural  of  compound  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  adding  the 
suffix  to  the  principal  noun,  that  is,  to  the  noun  described :  as,  fruit- 
irees^  &ro^Aers-in-law,  «icZs-de-camp. 

II.  When  the  last  part  of  a  compound  is  an  adjective  (according  to  the 
French  idiom)  the  suffix  is  usually  added  to  the  noun :  as,  attorneys- 
general,  co?^r^s-martial. 

Knights- Templars  pluralizes  both  parts;  as  do  also  men-servants^  women- 
servants. 

III.  When  the  words  are  so  closely  allied  that  the  meaning  is  incomplete 
till  the  whole  is  known,  the  plural  sign  is  added  at  the  end :  ii?,^  forget- 
me-nots. 

B. 

SYNOPSIS   OF   A  BEQULAR  VERB   IN  THE 
SECOND  PERSON  SINGULAR,  OLD  STYLE. 

Indicative Thou  lovest,  thou  lovedst,  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  thou  hast  loved, 

thou  hadst  loved,  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved. 

Potential Thou  mayst  love,  thou  mightst  love,  thou  mayst  have  loved,  thou 

mightst  have  loved. 

Subjunctive . .  If  thou  love,  if  thou  loved. 

////joera^i'ye..  .Love  thou. 

c. 

MODEL  OF  CONJUGATION  OF  IRREGULAR 

VERBS. 

NOTE. — The  mode  of  formation  of  the  compound  parts  of  an  ir- 
regular verb  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  a  regular  verb;  but  the 
irregularity  of  the  past  and  past  participle  renders  it  desirable  to 
illustrate  the  paradigm  of  the  verb,  and  to  practise  pupils  therein. 


T  O    S  E  E.  — Active  Voice. 

Principal  Parts — Present — see.     Past — saw.      Past  Participle — seen. 
Synopsis  of  the  Verb  "  To  See  "  in  the  Third  Person  Singular 

OF   ALL   THE   MoODS   AND   TeNSES   IN  THE   ACTIVE   VOICE. 

Indicative He  sees,  he  saw,  he  shall  or  will  see,  he  has  seen,  he  had  seen, 

he  shall  or  will  have  seen. 


184  APPENDIX. 

Potential. He  may  see,  he  might  see,  he  may  have  seen,  he  might  have  seen. 

Subjunctive.  .If  he  see,  if  he  saw. 
Imperative. .  .See  (jou. — thou,  ye). 

Synopsis  of  the  Yeeb  "To  See"  in  the  First  Person  Plural  op 

ALL  THE  Moods  and  Tenses  in  the  Passive  Voice. 
Indicative. .  ..We  are  seen,  we  were  seen,  we  shall  or  will  be  seen,  we  have  been 
seen,  we  had  been  seen,  we  shall  or  will  have  been  seen. 

Potential We  may  be  seen,  we  might  be  seen,  we  may  have  been  seen,  we 

might  have  been  seen. 
Subjunctive.  .If  we  be  seen,  if  we  were  seen. 
Imperative. .  .Be  (you— thou,  ye)  seen. 


D. 
FORMS    OF    CONJUG-ATION. 

Besides  the  common  style  of  the  verb,  several  special  modes  of  con- 
jugation are  used  to  express  particular  meanings.  The  principal  of 
these  are:  (1)  The  progressive.     (2)  The  emphatic.     (3)  The  in 

TERROGATIVE. 

I.  Progressive  Form. 

The  progressive  form  of  a  verb  is  that  which  represents  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  action  or  state  asserted  by  the  verb :  as,  "  I  am  writ- 
ing ;^''  "  He  was  sleeping.^'' 

The  progressive  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  combining  its  present  parti- 
cii)le  with  the  variations  of  the  auxiliary  verb  to  be. 

II.  Emphatic  Form. 

The  emphatic  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  joining  do  and  did  with  the 
infinitive  (without  to) :  as,  "  I  do  learn ;"  *'  I  did  learn." 

This  combination  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  the  past  indica- 
tive (active),  and  in  the  imperative. 

Present.— I  do  learn,  thou  dost  learn,  he  does  learn,  etc. 
Past.— I  did  learn,  thou  didst  learn,  he  did  learn,  etc. 
Imperative. — Do  learn. 

III.  Interrogative  Form. 

The  interrogative  form  is  that  which  is  used  in  asking  a  question : 
as,  "  Can  he  see  ?"  "  Shall  he  be  punished  ?" 


J 

CONJUGATION    OF    THE    AUXILIARY    VERB    TO    BB.  185 

This  form  is  used  iu  the  indicative  and  potential  moods. 

I.  A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  by  (1)  placing  the  subject  after 
the  verb:  as,  "Hearest  ihouP''  or  (2)  by  placing  the  subject  between 
the  auxiliary  and  the  verb;  as,  "May  we  go?"  or  (3)  by  placing  the 
subject  after  the  first  auxiliary  when  two  or  more  auxiliaries  are  used : 
as,  "  Could  he  have  called  ?" 
il.  In  common  usage,  the  present  and  the  past  of  the  indicative  mood 
are  rendered  interrogative  by  the  use  of  do  and  did^  with  the  subject 
following :  as,  "  Do  you  hear  V     "  Did  you  hear  ?" 


TO    SEE. 
I\   THE    IXTERROGATITE   FOIIM. 

Active  Voice. 

Indicative  Mood. — See  I,  or  do  I  see?    Saw  I,  or  did  I  see?    Shall  or 

will  I  see  ?     Have  I  seen  ?     Had  I  seen  ?     Shall  or  will  I  have  seen  ? 

Potential. — May  I  see?    Might  I  see?    May  I  have  seen?    Might  I 

have  seen? 

Pfissive  Voice. 

Indicative  Mood. — Am  I  seen?  Was  I  seen?  Shall  I  be  seen?  Have 
I  been  seen  ?     Had  I  been  seen  ?     Shall  or  will  I  have  been  seen  ? 

Potential. — May  I  be  seen?  Might  I  be  seen?  May  I  have  been  seen ? 
Might  I  have  been  seen  ? 

E. 

CONJUGATION    OF   THE    AUXILIARY   VERB 

TO    BE. 


AUXILIARY  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  A\9  OF  THE  PROGRESSIVE  FORM, 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present — am. 

Pasi— was.              Past  Participle— htQii, 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

PLUEAL. 

1.  I  am, 

1.  We  are, 

2.  Thou  art, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  He  is; 

3.  They  are. 

Past  Tense. 

1 .  I  was. 

] .  We  were, 

2.  Thou  wast, 

2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was ; 

3.  They  were. 

18G 


APPENDIX. 


SINGCLAK. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  ; 


Future  Tense. 

TLURAL. 

1 .  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


1.  I  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been, 

3.  He  has  been  ; 


1.  I  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been, 

3.  He  had  been  ; 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  They  have  been. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1 .  We  had  been, 

2.  You  had  been, 

3.  They  had  been. 


J^uture  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  ].  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,         2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been  ;  3.  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


1 .  I  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be, 

3.  He  may  be  ; 


1.  I  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be, 

3.  He  might  be ; 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1 .  We  mny  be, 

2.  You  may  be, 

3.  They  may  be. 

Past  Tense. 

1 .  We  might  be, 

2.  You  might  be, 

3.  They  might  be. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1,  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You  may  h'ave  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been ;  3.  They  may  have  been. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  1.  We  might  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been ;  3.  They  might  have  been. 


LIST    OF    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


187 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

BINGULAK.  PLURAI.. 

1.  If  I  be,  1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he  be;  3.  If  they  be. 


Past  Tense. 


SINGULAR.  PLDRAT 

1.  If  I  were,  J.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  were,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  were ;  3.  If  they  were. 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Be  (}'ou  —  thou,  ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present — to  be.       Perfect — to  have  been.       {Gerunds) — being ;  having  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present — being.  Pas^— been.  Pe?yec^— having  been. 


LIST  OF.  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

Explanation, — When  a  verb  lias  a  past  or  past  participle,  or  both, 
of  the  regular  conjugation,  this  fact  is  indicated  by  placing  -ed  after 
the  form  or  forms.  This  -ed  is  to  be  suffixed  to  the  root^  care  being 
taken  to  observe  the  rule  of  spelling  for  derivative  words. 

When  the  -ed  is  in  heavy  type  it  indicates  that  the  -ed  form  is 
preferable. 

The  forms  in  italics  are  either  out  of  use,  seldom  used,  or  not  used 
by  the  best  authors. 

PRKSEKT.  PAST.  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

^    abode 
arisen 
awaked 
been 
born 
borne 

beaten,  beat 
begun 
beheld 
belaid,  -ed 
bent,  -ed 


abide 

abode 

arise 

arose 

awake 

awoke,  -ed 

be  or  am 

was 

bear  {to  h 

'ing  forth) 

bore,  tare 

bear  {to  carry) 

bore,  bare 

beat 

beat 

begin 

began 

behold 

beheld 

belay 

belaid,  -ed. 

bend 

bent,  -ed 

/ 


188 

APPENDIX. 

I'RESENT. 

PAST. 

PAST  PAHTICIPLK 

bet 

bet,  -ed 

bet,  -ed 

bereave 

bereft  . 

bereft,  -ed 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bid 

bid,  bade 

bidden,  bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blend    . 

blent,  -ed 

blent,  -ed 

bless 

blest,  -ed 

blest,  -ed 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke,  di^aJce 

broken,  drohe 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build 

built,  -ed 

built,  -ed 

burn 

burnt,  -ed 

burnt,  -ed 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

cast 

cast 

cast 

catch 

caught,  -ed 

caught,  -ed 

chide 

chid,  chode 

chidden,  cJiid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave  {to  adhere) 

cleaved,  clave 

cleaved 

cleave  (to  split) 

clove,  cleft,  clave 

cleft,  cloven 

climb 

climbed,  clo7nb 

climbed 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clothed,  clad 

clad,  -ed 

come 

came 

come 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crew,  -ed 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

dare  {to  venture) 

durst,  -ed 

dared 

deal 

dealt,  -ed 

dealt,  -ed 

dig 

dug,  -ed 

dug,  -ed 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

'    drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamt^  -ed 

dreamt,  -ed 

LIST    OP    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


189 


TEESENT. 

PAST. 

PAST  PAKTIOIPLE. 

dress 

drest,  -ed 

drest,  -ed 

drink 

drank,  drurilc 

drunk,  drunken 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt,  -ed 

dwelt,  -ed 

eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten,  eat 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

find 

found 

found 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fling 

flung 

flung 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got,  gotten 

gild 

gilt,  -ed 

gilt,  -ed 

gird 

girt,  -ed 

girt,  -ed 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grave 

graved 

graven,  -ed 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

liang* 

hung 

hung 

have 

had 

had 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heave 

hove,  -ed 

hoven,  -ed 

hew 

hewed 

hewn,  -ed 

hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid. 

hold 

held 

held,  Tiolden 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt,  -ed 

knelt,  -ed 

*  Ilang^  to  take  life  by  hanging,  is  regular. 


1)JV 

APPENDIX 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PABT  PAETICIPLE. 

knit 

knit,  -ed 

knit,  -ed 

know 

knew 

known 

lade 

laded 

laded,  laden 

Haj 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leap 

Igapt,  -ed 

Igapt,  -ed 

learn 

learnt,  -ed 

learnt,  -ed 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay- 

lain 

light 

lit,  -ed 

lit,  -ed 

lose 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 

made 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

mow 

mowed 

mown,  -ed 

pass 

past,  -ed 

past,  -ed 

pay 

paid 

paid 

pen  (to  enclose) 

pent,  -ed 

pent,  -ed 

prove 

proved 

proven, -ed 

quit 

quit,  -ed 

quit,  -ed 

rap 

rapt,  -ed 

rapt,  -ed 

read 

rgad 

r6ad 

rend 

rent 

rent 

ride 

rode,  rid 

ridden,  rid 

ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rive 

rived 

riven,  -ed 

run 

ran,  run 

run 

saw 

sawed 

sawn,  -ed 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

seek 

sought 

sought 

seethe 

sod, -ed 

sodden,  -ed 

sell 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

LIST    OF    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


191 


PEESENT. 

PAST. 

PAST  PAETICIPLE. 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shape 

shaped 

shajyen^  -ed 

shave 

shaved 

shaven,  -ed 

shear 

sheared,  shore 

shorn,  -ed 

shine 

shone,  -ed 

shone,  -ed 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

show- 

show^ed 

shown,  -ed 

shred 

shred 

shred 

shrink 

shrank,  shrunh 

shrunk,  shrunken 

sing 

sang,  sung 

sung 

sink 

sank,  siinh 

sunk 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay- 

slew 

slain 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

sling 

slung,  slang 

slung 

slink 

slunk,  slanh 

slunk 

slit 

slit,  -ed 

slit,  -ed 

smell 

smelt,  -ed 

smelt,  -ed 

smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

sow 

sowed 

sown,  -ed 

speak 

spoke,  Bpake 

spoken 

speed 

sped,  -ed 

sped,  -ed 

spell 

spelt,  -ed 

spelt,  -ed 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spill 

spilt,  -ed 

spilt,  -ed 

spin 

spun,  simn 

spun 

spit 

spit,  spat 

spit 

split 

split,  -ed 

split,  -ed 

spoil 

spoilt,  -ed 

spoilt,  -ed 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang,  sprung 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stave 

stove,  -ed 

stove,  -ed 

193 


sweep 

swell 

swim 

swing 

take 

teach 

tear 

tell 

think 

thrive 

throw 

tread 

wake 

wax 

wear 

weave 

wed 

w^eep 

wet 

whet 

win 

wind 

vvork 

wring 

write 


PAST. 

PAST  PAnTIOirLB. 

staid,  -ed 

staid,  -ed 

stole 

stolen 

stuck 

stuck 

stung 

stung 

strode,  strid 

stridden 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

strung 

strung 

strove 

striven 

strowed,  strewed 

strown,  strew^n 

swore,  sware 

sworn 

sweat,  -ed 

SAveat,  -ed 

swept 

swept 

swelled 

swollen,  -ed 

swam,  sicum 

swum 

swung 

swung 

took 

taken 

taught 

taught 

tore,  tare 

to>'n 

told 

told 

thought 

thought 

throve,  -ed 

thriven,  -ed 

threw 

,     thrown 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

woke,  -ed 

woke,  -ed 

waxed 

waxen,  -ed 

wore 

w'orn    ■ 

wove 

woven 

w^ed,  -ed 

wed,  -ed 

wept 

w^ept 

wet,  -ed 

wet,  -ed 

whet,  -ed 

Tvhet,  -ed 

w^on 

won 

wound,  -ed 

w^ound 

wrought,  -ed 

wTought,  -cd 

WTung 

wrung 

wrote,  writ 

written 

YB  36498 


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